**3. Material and methods**

For this study, a total of 49 control points were selected, using planetocentric coordinates (**Table 1**), in the study area (**Figure 2**) based on the coverage of images downloaded from the Pilot tool [12], and captured by the Viking Orbiter between 1976 and 1980. The purpose, of using images from the Viking Orbiter, is none other than to check whether water and chlorophyll pigment-producing organisms existed on the surface of Mars in that period.

In total, 942 images were obtained, all in the planetocentric coordinate system, and whose geographic coordinates, which make up the area from which the control points have been established, have values, relative to the upper left corner of the study area, of 10° latitude and 15° longitude, while those corresponding to the lower right corner are 10° latitude and 15° longitude.

In order to eliminate the possible atmospheric effects present in the information of each pixel of the downloaded images, the procedure patented by the main author of this work was used [13]. This procedure uses RGB coded bands


(Red-Green-Red), which have a similar effect to that obtained when a satellite image is corrected for bias and field. The resulting images will be displayed in three colors (magenta, green and dark green), the latter being the one shown in those areas whose relative moisture content is high compared to the rest of areas of same image. It should be emphasized that the coding of visible bands, by means of the patented procedure obtained by [13], results in a series of spectral bands that provide more information than those corresponding only to the visible spectrum, since it allows to extract, from each pixel, the information found in the

*Sedimentation and Proposed Algorithms to Detect the Possible Existence of Vegetation…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97628*

In order to find algorithms capable of detecting both the moisture content and the existence of chlorophyll pigment-producing organisms on Mars surface, the spectral signatures of the 49 control points specified above have been obtained, each of which was compared with the spectral signatures encoded (with range of wavelengths in nm) of different types of water, as well as different types of ice, existing in certain

In the same way, a massive search for plant pigments was carried out at the pixel

*of Clhorophill* <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ *Blue* � *Green*

In another vein, a simulation of the transported soil was carried out, as a consequence of erosive processes, in the study area. To carry out this analysis, a total of 82

ð Þ *Red cod* <sup>þ</sup> *Green cod <sup>r</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> 0, 85; *<sup>R</sup>*<sup>2</sup> <sup>¼</sup> 0, 91 (2)

ð Þ *Blue* <sup>þ</sup> *Green* (1)

level, using the Plant Pigment Ratio (PPR) [14], to later relate it to the Coded Normalized Vegetation Index (CNDVI) obtained by [13]. Equations of the PPR and

areas of the Earth (**Table 2**), which are presented in **Figures 3** and **4**.

CNDVI indices are shown in Eqs. (1) and (2) respectively.

*CNDVI* <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ *Red cod* � *Green cod*

*PPR mol* � *mol*�<sup>1</sup>

region from ultraviolet to near infrared.

**Figure 2.**

**81**

*Location of the study area.*

**Table 1.** *Control points on Mars surface where spectral signature has been obtained.* *Sedimentation and Proposed Algorithms to Detect the Possible Existence of Vegetation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97628*

**Figure 2.** *Location of the study area.*

**3. Material and methods**

*Solar System Planets and Exoplanets*

on the surface of Mars in that period.

**25** 0 0

*Control points on Mars surface where spectral signature has been obtained.*

**Table 1.**

**80**

lower right corner are 10° latitude and 15° longitude.

For this study, a total of 49 control points were selected, using planetocentric coordinates (**Table 1**), in the study area (**Figure 2**) based on the coverage of images downloaded from the Pilot tool [12], and captured by the Viking Orbiter between 1976 and 1980. The purpose, of using images from the Viking Orbiter, is none other than to check whether water and chlorophyll pigment-producing organisms existed

In total, 942 images were obtained, all in the planetocentric coordinate system, and whose geographic coordinates, which make up the area from which the control points have been established, have values, relative to the upper left corner of the study area, of 10° latitude and 15° longitude, while those corresponding to the

In order to eliminate the possible atmospheric effects present in the information of each pixel of the downloaded images, the procedure patented by the main author of this work was used [13]. This procedure uses RGB coded bands

> (Red-Green-Red), which have a similar effect to that obtained when a satellite image is corrected for bias and field. The resulting images will be displayed in three colors (magenta, green and dark green), the latter being the one shown in those areas whose relative moisture content is high compared to the rest of areas of same image. It should be emphasized that the coding of visible bands, by means of the patented procedure obtained by [13], results in a series of spectral bands that provide more information than those corresponding only to the visible spectrum, since it allows to extract, from each pixel, the information found in the region from ultraviolet to near infrared.

> In order to find algorithms capable of detecting both the moisture content and the existence of chlorophyll pigment-producing organisms on Mars surface, the spectral signatures of the 49 control points specified above have been obtained, each of which was compared with the spectral signatures encoded (with range of wavelengths in nm) of different types of water, as well as different types of ice, existing in certain areas of the Earth (**Table 2**), which are presented in **Figures 3** and **4**.

> In the same way, a massive search for plant pigments was carried out at the pixel level, using the Plant Pigment Ratio (PPR) [14], to later relate it to the Coded Normalized Vegetation Index (CNDVI) obtained by [13]. Equations of the PPR and CNDVI indices are shown in Eqs. (1) and (2) respectively.

$$\text{LPR} \left( mol \cdot mol^{-1} \text{of Cl} (horbophill) \right) = \frac{(Blue - Green)}{(Blue + Green)} \tag{1}$$

$$\text{CNDVI} = \frac{(\text{Red } cod - \text{Green } cod)}{(\text{Red } cod + \text{Green } cod)} \text{ (}r = 0, \text{85; R}^2 = 0, \text{91)} \tag{2}$$

In another vein, a simulation of the transported soil was carried out, as a consequence of erosive processes, in the study area. To carry out this analysis, a total of 82


equation proposed by [11] for salt-marshes. It must be taken into account that the small diameter of the pebbles existing in the study area, which have been measured from the images captured by Opportunity using ImageJ software, are similar to the diameter of those existing in salt-marshes on Earth with a very slow water course velocity (such as that existing at Tinto or Odiel salt-marshes, or even at both Isla Cristina or Doñana salt-marshes). Therefore, the model used is

*Sedimentation and Proposed Algorithms to Detect the Possible Existence of Vegetation…*

Where "y" is the prediction of volume of eroded soil in hm<sup>3</sup>

Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) has been used.

*<sup>y</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> 0, 032 � 0, 133 � *SD* � 1, 164 � *T r* <sup>¼</sup> 0, 973; *<sup>R</sup>*<sup>2</sup> <sup>¼</sup> 0, 941 � � (3)

counted from the lowest level of the bed depth, in each control point, in study area (positive values represent sediment deposition, while negative values represent soil

In order to be able to calculate, with sufficient precision and through iterative processes [13], the volume of eroded soil, the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the

In relation to the above, a model was obtained, from which, to calculate the water flow velocity that existed in Meridiani Planum based on the pebbles diameter found in the Opportunity images. This model was compared with the one obtained by the second and third author of this chapter in a zone of slow water flow velocity of the Chaqui river in Bucay (Ecuador) and in a stream located in Bonita Creek (CA,

After comparing the spectral signatures of each of the 49 control points (**Table 1**) established in the study area, with the spectral signatures encoded (with range of wavelengths in nm) of the Earth (**Figures 3** and **4**), coincidences have been found in three of them (**Figure 5**), and more specifically with those corresponding to acid water 2, turbid water and frozen water (type 2), although only in 39 control

On the other hand, and as a consequence of the existence of perchlorate salt (it enables the existence of acid water, in addition to facilitating the water evaporation at temperatures below 0°C) on Mars surface [15], a new algorithm, called Moisture Soil Index on Mars (MSIM), has been obtained, with which it is possible to obtain the humidity percentage in Martian soil. The expression of the MSIM is shown in

After comparing the MSIM with the WEH moisture index (it corresponds to the amount of hydrogen molecules in the water) established by [16] (**Figure 6**) it is observed that, although there is no relationship between both indices, it is true that

In order to facilitate the use of this new index, an estimate of it can be obtained

*Red band* � �1,5 " # *<sup>r</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> 0, 71; *<sup>R</sup>*<sup>2</sup> <sup>¼</sup> 0, 735 � � (4)

) where the eroded volume has occurred, and "T" is the height

, "SD" is the

shown in Eq. (3):

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97628*

equivalent area (km<sup>2</sup>

USA) respectively.

points (**Table 3**).

Eq. (4):

**83**

**4. Results and discussion**

**4.1 Analysis of spectral signatures**

*MSIM* ð Þ¼ % <sup>10</sup> � <sup>1</sup> � *Blue band*

a high WEH corresponds to high MSIM and vice versa.

from the planetocentric coordinates of Mars, as shown in Eq. (5).

erosion).

#### **Table 2.**

*Different types of both water and ice, existing in the Earth, taken as reference.*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Spectral signatures of different types of water in the visible spectrum (MSS water on Earth is the Mean Spectral Signature of water on Earth).*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Spectral signatures of two types of frozen water in the visible spectrum.*

control points were established, in the form of a rectangular mesh, in the study area, although taking the area covered by Opportunity as a reference.

As a consequence of not having initial topographic values of the soil of Mars, nor of how they have varied over time, the total transported soil is calculated using the

*Sedimentation and Proposed Algorithms to Detect the Possible Existence of Vegetation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97628*

equation proposed by [11] for salt-marshes. It must be taken into account that the small diameter of the pebbles existing in the study area, which have been measured from the images captured by Opportunity using ImageJ software, are similar to the diameter of those existing in salt-marshes on Earth with a very slow water course velocity (such as that existing at Tinto or Odiel salt-marshes, or even at both Isla Cristina or Doñana salt-marshes). Therefore, the model used is shown in Eq. (3):

$$y = 0,032 - 0,133 \cdot \text{SD} - 1,164 \cdot T \left( r = 0,973; R^2 = 0,941 \right) \tag{3}$$

Where "y" is the prediction of volume of eroded soil in hm<sup>3</sup> , "SD" is the equivalent area (km<sup>2</sup> ) where the eroded volume has occurred, and "T" is the height counted from the lowest level of the bed depth, in each control point, in study area (positive values represent sediment deposition, while negative values represent soil erosion).

In order to be able to calculate, with sufficient precision and through iterative processes [13], the volume of eroded soil, the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) has been used.

In relation to the above, a model was obtained, from which, to calculate the water flow velocity that existed in Meridiani Planum based on the pebbles diameter found in the Opportunity images. This model was compared with the one obtained by the second and third author of this chapter in a zone of slow water flow velocity of the Chaqui river in Bucay (Ecuador) and in a stream located in Bonita Creek (CA, USA) respectively.
