**3.3 Results from multivariate analysis**

In the above section we have discussed the bivariate association between women's lifetime experience of spousal violence and background characteristics of women. To understand the net effect of women's empowerment related parameters on women's experience of sexual violence we have applied binary logistic regression. On the basis of Pearson's correlation coefficient value (r), we found that some variables are highly correlated such as age group of women and number of living children (r > 0.5). Decision making on women's health, household purchase, visit to women's family and relatives and the use of husband's earning show strong correlation among them (r > 0.5). Also women's level of education and wealth quintile, women's possession of mobile phone and wealth quintile, women's possession of mobile phone and bank account show moderate correlation. Keeping these into account, we have not used all the background variables selected earlier for the multivariate analysis. **Table 5** presents the results of binary logistic regression analysis predicting the probability of a woman experiencing spousal sexual violence. Odds ratio greater than one indicates a positive relationship between the independent variables and the probability of experiencing sexual abuse by husband, and odds ratio less than one indicates a negative relationship.



*Sexual Violence and Women Empowerment in India: Findings from a Nationally Representative… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97456*


*N = 59915 (Among women who experienced spousal sexual violence ever, information on all selected covariates are available for 59915 women). Source: Computed from Women's file, NFHS-4, India, 2015–2016.*

#### **Table 5**

*Logistic regression results showing the likelihood of ever-married women experiencing spousal sexual violence ever by selected variables, India, 2015–2016*

From the logistic regression analysis in **Table 5**, it is observed that age of the women, their level of education and wealth quintile are not significantly associated with women's experience of spousal sexual violence. Muslim women show significantly higher probability of experiencing sexual violence by their husbands compared to the Hindu women (OR 1.228, p < .01). Interestingly, in the bivariate analysis we found the opposite result. Another study from India also found similar result [33]. As in the multivariate analysis, other factors are controlled; we may find such contradictory results. It indicates that any/some of the background factors have more influence on marital sexual abuse than religion in case of Muslim women. Caste of women does not have significant impact on spousal sexual violence. Currently working women show higher odds of being Sexually abused by husbands but occupation of husband was not significantly associated with sexual abuse of wife. Also women who had bank account, their likelihood of facing sexual abuse was lower compared to their counterparts (OR 0.874, p < .001). After covariate adjustment, it was found that the risk of sexual violence was significantly higher for those who reported consumption of alcohol by their husbands (OR 1.689, p < .001). Women who witnessed abuse of their mother by their father, who suffered spousal physical violence, who experienced higher spousal control on several issues, who reported that they were afraid of their husbands, who justified wifebeating were more likely to have experienced marital sexual violence. The results are significant at <0.001 percent level of significance. Compared to the women who alone used to take decision about own health care, those who jointly took decision with husbands were significantly less likely to face spousal sexual violence when other factors are controlled. Finally, compared to the women of North India, the women of Eastern and North-Eastern India showed significantly higher probability of facing spousal sexual violence but the women of Western and Southern India had significantly lower probability of experiencing sexual abuse by their husbands.

#### **4. Discussion**

The ecological model of Heise provides a comprehensive framework to understand the factors associated with IPV at various levels. In the first level biological and personal factors like women's age, level of education, religion, caste, labour force participation, own bank account, husband's occupation, are included in our analysis along with the women's intergenerational experience of violence and the consumption of alcohol by husband. Several studies from different parts of the world have found strong correlation between the last two factors and domestic violence [8, 14, 17, 49, 51, 53–55]. Young age is regarded as a risk factor of experiencing IPV [56]. Education enhances women's cognitive ability, self esteem, and participation in decision making; therefore, educated women are less likely to suffer from domestic violence [33, 39, 56]. However, the positive influence of education frequently disappears when factors associated with relationship stressors are controlled [57]. In our study we have found that age and women's education are not significantly related to sexual abuse of wife. Like education, women's participation in work, particularly paid work is also regarded as crucial factor for women empowerment [39]. It is assumed that labour force participation helps women to attend financial independence. Therefore it is expected that working women are less likely to experience domestic violence. Interestingly, our results are just the opposite. Previous studies from India also found similar outcome [33, 58]. This finding does not fit into the general notion that women empowerment through work force participation will reduce IPV. Actually IPV is a way of asserting male authority on women. As working women acquire some sort of independence by joining the labour force, it poses a challenge to their partners. To keep women under their control, violent measures are used by men. Therefore, only enhancing women's opportunity to education and work is not enough for battle against domestic violence. Although owning a bank account is not a good indicator of women empowerment as husband alone can handle the account, nevertheless, after controlling the effects of other factors, it shows negative association with wife's experience of sexual abuse. In fact, owning a bank account enhances women's sense of financial security.

In the second level, the variables expressing the power relation in the family (women's experience of spousal physical violence, husband's marital control on selected issues, decision making power of women regarding own health and whether women are afraid of their husband) are taken into account. Husband's assertion of control over wife is the manifestation of patriarchal mindset. Women empowerment is closely linked with women's autonomy. Women's autonomy is their ability to determine events in their lives [59] and like the control issues, women's decision making power regarding their health, household purchase, visit to family and relatives, use of husband's earning are closely associated with women empowerment. It has already been mentioned that the variables related to women's autonomy are highly correlated. Therefore, we have used one variable in the logistic regression model, i.e., women's decision making power regarding their health. As health has both intrinsic and instrumental values, decision making power regarding own health is the most important factor compared to other issues mentioned above. Physical violence by husband comes under relationship factors because men use it as an instrument of power by which women are dominated and inequality between men and women are maintained [33]. Besides, literature reveals that sexual abuse often accompanied by physical violence [3]. When women report that they are afraid of their husbands, it indicates substantial lower position of women in gender based power relation.

Under community level factors (third level) we have included attitude of women towards wife beating and wealth index. Previous studies from developing countries have also considered that the community wife beating norms are closely associated with IPV [17, 24]. It is an important contextual-level variable affecting spousal violence. In our analysis we have found that 43 per cent of women supported at least one of the wife beating issues. It reflects conservative attitudes of the society towards gender norms that endorses IPV. As a result, women themselves support wife beating for trivial issues like food is not properly cooked. The socioeconomic status of a family influences both personal and relationship factors of domestic violence. Poverty and unemployment fuels marital conflicts which ultimately led to domestic violence. However, we have found that economic status of a family does not have significant impact on women's experience of sexual violence controlling for other factors.

*Sexual Violence and Women Empowerment in India: Findings from a Nationally Representative… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97456*

The fourth level represents the broad societal factors. We have put region of India under this level. Previous studies have focussed on the sharp contrast between the North and South India regarding social and cultural norms, level of education and fertility rates [59–61]. In fact, in India women's status and vulnerability varies from region to region [62]. There is a general notion that women enjoy higher autonomy in North-East India. However, one study found that it is true only for selective indicators [63]. Although in general Indian society is patriarchal by nature, prevalence and manifestation of wife abuse varies across regions due to regionspecific cultural norms and traditions. Our studies found that women from East and North-East are more vulnerable to sexual violence under marital relationship.

## **5. Conclusion**

In India domestic violence by husband is a common phenomenon. Using the ecological model of Heise we have tried to find out the association between spousal sexual violence and women's empowerment related variables. Education and workforce participation are often used as proxy to women empowerment but we find that controlling for other relational, community level and broad societal determinants of violence, education and work force participation are not found as protective factors against sexual violence by husband in India. Therefore, empowering women through increased access to education and work will not produce desirable outcome in combating domestic violence, unless and until policy measures take into account the broader cultural norm that view unequal power relation as natural and normal. We think this finding has an important policy implication.

India is a diverse country and cultural norms and traditions vary widely from region to region. Most of the researches on domestic violence concentrate on North-South differences, while the highest prevalence of physical violence as well as sexual violence was recorded in East India [8]. We also observed that after covariate adjustment, women of Eastern India was the most vulnerable to experience spousal sexual violence. Therefore, special strategies should be prepared for this region while formulating policies and programmes to end violence against women in India.

## **Conflict of interest**

There is no conflict of interest as there is no co-author.

### **Author details**

Shewli Shabnam Bidhannagar College, Kolkata, India

\*Address all correspondence to: shewlijnu@gmail.com

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
