**4. FCVAM case studies: Viveiro, Spain, B'Buga, Malta and Silifke, Turkey**

The FCVAM methodology can be applied at different spatial resolutions, depending on the objective of the assessment. The model can compare coastal areas from the NUTS3 level to local administrative unit levels with higher spatial resolution scales, since the model can analyse all of the combinations of model parameters having a range of input values. The application of the model is possible at a very coarse resolution such that aggregated vulnerability scores for different administrative units are used to evaluate national assessments and regional planning. At a local scale, it uses GIS-based high resolution data; the model analyses different impacts and the governing processes for a specific area. However, when the model is integrated with GIS-based information, the spatial scale of the assessment depends on the detail of the available information for a particular site rather than the extent of the research area. Both levels of assessment and how the different geomorphologic processes and landforms influence the model will be illustrated with case studies.

Three case study sites are chosen at the LAU2 (local administrative unit) level which corresponds to towns\municipalities at different countries. The model is applied to coastal strips within administrative borders using information from the database built by Ozyurt (2010) and the published research on these locations. The studies are also used to verify and validate applicability of the FCVAM model to different coastal areas and how the results can be applied to regional planning. The sites chosen are the Viveiro in Lugo province of Spain (Northern Spain), the B'Buga municipality of Malta (Southeast of Malta) and the town of Silifke, Turkey (south Turkey). These sites represent different landform types as well as different levels of human intervention on the geomorphologic processes from the perspective of ICZM planning and coastal vulnerability to sea level rise.

#### **4.1 Database**

150 Studies on Environmental and Applied Geomorphology

1. Rate of Sea Level Rise

1. Rate of Sea Level Rise 2. Proximity to Coast 3. Type of Aquifer

4. Hydraulic Conductivity 5. Depth to Groundwater

1. Rate of Sea Level Rise

Table 2. Parameters of the FCVAM model representing other mechanisms included in the

**4. FCVAM case studies: Viveiro, Spain, B'Buga, Malta and Silifke, Turkey** 

The FCVAM methodology can be applied at different spatial resolutions, depending on the objective of the assessment. The model can compare coastal areas from the NUTS3 level to local administrative unit levels with higher spatial resolution scales, since the model can analyse all of the combinations of model parameters having a range of input values. The application of the model is possible at a very coarse resolution such that aggregated vulnerability scores for different administrative units are used to evaluate national assessments and regional planning. At a local scale, it uses GIS-based high resolution data; the model analyses different impacts and the governing processes for a specific area. However, when the model is integrated with GIS-based information, the spatial scale of the assessment depends on the detail of the available information for a particular site rather than the extent of the research area. Both levels of assessment and how the different geomorphologic processes

Three case study sites are chosen at the LAU2 (local administrative unit) level which corresponds to towns\municipalities at different countries. The model is applied to coastal strips within administrative borders using information from the database built by Ozyurt (2010) and the published research on these locations. The studies are also used to verify and validate applicability of the FCVAM model to different coastal areas and how the results can be applied to regional planning. The sites chosen are the Viveiro in Lugo province of Spain (Northern Spain), the B'Buga municipality of Malta (Southeast of Malta) and the town of Silifke, Turkey (south Turkey). These sites represent different landform types as well as different levels of human intervention on the geomorphologic processes from the

2. Coastal Slope 3. Storm Surge Height

4. Tidal Range

2. Coastal Slope 3. Tidal Range

Level Above Sea

2. Tidal Range 3.Water Depth at Downstream 4. Discharge

and landforms influence the model will be illustrated with case studies.

perspective of ICZM planning and coastal vulnerability to sea level rise.

Inundation 1. Rate of Sea Level Rise

Flooding due to Storm

Salt Water Intrusion to Groundwater Resources

Salt Water Intrusion to Rivers/Estuaries

model (Ozyurt, 2010).

Surges

**Physical Parameters Human Influence Parameters** 

1. Engineered Frontage

2. Natural Protection Degradation 3. Coastal Protection Structures

1. Natural Protection Degradation 2. Coastal Protection Structures

1. Groundwater Consumption

2. Land Use Pattern

1. River Flow Regulation 2. Engineered Frontage 3. Land Use Pattern

The database build by Ozyurt (2010) covers most of the European coastlines from the Baltic Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and include information on 79 major river basins and the aquifers of nine EU countries. This variety of coastal properties ensured the compilation of a thorough dataset enabling the application of the model to different coastal areas around the world. The database includes information on all the parameters of the FVCAM model presented in Table 1 and Table 2. Some of the databases used by Ozyurt (2010) form a part of other databases, which are either publicly or commercially available. However, all of the data collected and used by Ozyurt from these databases is available free for research. Some of the studies which were used to develop the database of Ozyurt (2010) were the EUROSION project, the DIVA project, the Digital Dataset of the European Groundwater Resources, the RivDIS dataset, the Waterbase dataset, the WWDII dataset and several national datasets. Details on the representation of different parameters within the developed database and the processes used to develop the GIS-based database are explained in Ozyurt (2010) in detail. The spatial resolution of the compiled dataset is not homogenous throughout European coasts (for some parameters, only information at a coarser resolution is available).

#### **4.2 Case study areas: Viveiro, Spain**

Viveiro (also known as Vivero) is a town and municipality in the province of Lugo, in the north-western Galician autonomous community of Spain. It has a residential population of over 16,000 (2010 figures), which triples in the summer months with visitors to the coastal region. Viveiro Ria is open to the north and is separated from the Barqueiro Ria by Coelleira Island (Fig. 3) on the lee side of Cape Estaca de Bares. The Landro River has developed an estuary in the inner part of the inlet. Its mouth complex used to present large sand spit, growing eastward from Covas headland. The Viveiro Ria is significantly affected by human occupation. The area includes the important fishing seaport of Celeiro in addition to extensive urbanisation and industrialisation. This occupation affects a large part of the marshland - most of which has been reclaimed - resulting in its current degraded state. Additionally, the highly modified Covas beach has developed between Punta Anchousa to the west and a dike to the east. The construction of the dike and the occupation of the dunes have resulted in a considerable erosion of sand. This loss has been compensated for with artificial regeneration of the beach. Research by Lorenzo et al. (2010) states that "the most significant changes on the beach and spit system have been (1) complete occupation of the dune area of the bar, (2) infilling of the former channel and of the Celeiro inlet, (3) construction of the seawalls of the Celeiro port, and (4) channelling of the Landro River outlet." On the other hand, the coastal strip of the administrative unit is dominated by rocky and medium cliffs, where the cliffs on the eastern side of the bay show signs of erosion. Small pocket beaches also exist along this indented coastal strip of the administrative borders of Viveiro.

#### **4.3 Case study areas: B'Buga, Malta**

The Maltese Islands have a collective shoreline of about 190 km and a surface area of 316 squares kilometres. Rough estimates indicate that only approximately 1.2% of the total land surface is 1m or less above sea level. In fact, the islands' coastline is characterised by cliffs, clay slopes and boulder rocks (Fig. 4). 50% of Malta's coasts and 74% of Gozo's coastline

Spatial and Time Balancing Act:

table is presently 40% over-exploited (Birdi, 1997).

Fig. 4. Google Earth image of B'Buga, Malta

**4.4 Case study areas: Silifke, Turkey** 

Coastal Geomorphology in View of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) 153

production and were introduced because of the high salinity levels in the mean sea level aquifer (Birdi, 1997). Groundwater is extracted from two main water tables. Almost all of the groundwater supplies (95.1%) are extracted from the mean sea level aquifer, a freshwater lens resting on denser seawater, and a small amount is obtained from the perched aquifer (4.9%), resting on a Blue Clay aquiclude in the west of Malta. Large quantities of groundwater are also extracted by farmers, industries and the private owners of boreholes. Unsustainable extraction policies, particularly during the 1970's, have meant that the water

Most of the important economic activities take place on or near the coastal areas and especially on deltas. While low elevations increase physical vulnerability, the high level of socio-economic activity exacerbates the vulnerability of these areas. One of these regions is the Goksu delta, which is located on the south of Silifke, Mersin, where the Goksu river with a 10000-km2 catchment area - reaches the Mediterranean Sea. The coastal area of Silifke is dominated by the formation of the Goksu delta. The delta - surrounded by the Taurus Mountains to the north and northeast - is split into two by the Goksu river. There are two

shallow lakes: Paradeniz and Akgöl, to the east and west respectively (Fig. 5).

have been defined as inaccessible, mainly due to physical features (Malta Structure Plan, 1990 as cited in Axiak, 1992). This leads to heavy pressures being exerted on the remaining lowlands for touristic, industrial and urban purposes. Sandy beaches constitute only 2% of the coastline. Nonetheless, these very restricted localities and the rest of the coastal lowlands support a number of unique and important habitats, such as saline marsh lands, sand dunes and gentle rocky slopes. Coastal erosion is one of the human-induced pressures, including urban settlement and coastal development, land-based pollution and quarrying activities on the coastal lowland (Axiak, 1992).

Fig. 3. Google Earth image of Viveiro, Spain

Birzebbuga is a fishing port and small resort on the western side of Marsaxlokk Bay (Fig. 4). Its population increased because of the workers employed at the nearby Malta Freeport and container terminal. Popular among Maltese holiday-makers, the location is known for its important archaeological sites and a sandy beach. However, the coastal strip is mainly dominated by rocky cliffs and the heavy coastal structures of the Malta Freeport and container terminal.

The water supply in Malta is of two types. First class water is treated to potable standards and used for tap water. Second class water is non-potable and used mostly in agriculture and by some industries. First class water is derived from groundwater and five Reverse Osmosis (RO) desalination plants. These RO plants currently account for most of the water

have been defined as inaccessible, mainly due to physical features (Malta Structure Plan, 1990 as cited in Axiak, 1992). This leads to heavy pressures being exerted on the remaining lowlands for touristic, industrial and urban purposes. Sandy beaches constitute only 2% of the coastline. Nonetheless, these very restricted localities and the rest of the coastal lowlands support a number of unique and important habitats, such as saline marsh lands, sand dunes and gentle rocky slopes. Coastal erosion is one of the human-induced pressures, including urban settlement and coastal development, land-based pollution and quarrying activities on

Birzebbuga is a fishing port and small resort on the western side of Marsaxlokk Bay (Fig. 4). Its population increased because of the workers employed at the nearby Malta Freeport and container terminal. Popular among Maltese holiday-makers, the location is known for its important archaeological sites and a sandy beach. However, the coastal strip is mainly dominated by rocky cliffs and the heavy coastal structures of the Malta Freeport and

The water supply in Malta is of two types. First class water is treated to potable standards and used for tap water. Second class water is non-potable and used mostly in agriculture and by some industries. First class water is derived from groundwater and five Reverse Osmosis (RO) desalination plants. These RO plants currently account for most of the water

the coastal lowland (Axiak, 1992).

Fig. 3. Google Earth image of Viveiro, Spain

container terminal.

production and were introduced because of the high salinity levels in the mean sea level aquifer (Birdi, 1997). Groundwater is extracted from two main water tables. Almost all of the groundwater supplies (95.1%) are extracted from the mean sea level aquifer, a freshwater lens resting on denser seawater, and a small amount is obtained from the perched aquifer (4.9%), resting on a Blue Clay aquiclude in the west of Malta. Large quantities of groundwater are also extracted by farmers, industries and the private owners of boreholes. Unsustainable extraction policies, particularly during the 1970's, have meant that the water table is presently 40% over-exploited (Birdi, 1997).

Fig. 4. Google Earth image of B'Buga, Malta

#### **4.4 Case study areas: Silifke, Turkey**

Most of the important economic activities take place on or near the coastal areas and especially on deltas. While low elevations increase physical vulnerability, the high level of socio-economic activity exacerbates the vulnerability of these areas. One of these regions is the Goksu delta, which is located on the south of Silifke, Mersin, where the Goksu river with a 10000-km2 catchment area - reaches the Mediterranean Sea. The coastal area of Silifke is dominated by the formation of the Goksu delta. The delta - surrounded by the Taurus Mountains to the north and northeast - is split into two by the Goksu river. There are two shallow lakes: Paradeniz and Akgöl, to the east and west respectively (Fig. 5).

Spatial and Time Balancing Act:

**Human Inference Parameters** 

Coastal Geomorphology in View of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) 155

(Axiak, 1992; Birdi, 1997; Lorenzo et al, 2010; Ozyurt and Ergin, 2009). Table 3 presents the input values for the three study areas. Some of the data presented in Table 3 needs preprocessing steps. These pre-processing steps are explained in detail in Ozyurt (2010).

**Physical Inference Parameters** Viveiro B'Buga Goksu

Rate of Sea Level Rise (mm/year) 2.5 1 2

Beach Slope (%) 2.6 3 1

Significant Wave Height (m) 2.96 1.04 3

Sediment Budget (%) -17 -3 -50

Storm Surge Height (m) 6 3 4

Tidal Range (m) 2.75 0.1 0.3

Proximity to Coast of aquifer (km) NA 0.4 0.4

Type of Aquifer NA Unconfined Unconfined

Hydraulic Conductivity of aquifer NA 0.001 0.000016

Depth to Groundwater Level (m) NA 0 2

River Discharge (m3/s) 7.5 NA 90

River Water Depth (m) 1 NA 1

Reduction of Sediment Supply (%) 30 0 60

Engineered Frontage(%) 27 10 5

Groundwater Stress(%) NA 140 80

Natural Protection Degradation (%) 17 NA 60

Coastal Protection Structures (%) 9.3 10 3

Land Use Unclassified Settlement\

Table 3. Input data used for the FCVAM Analysis.

River Flow Regulation Not affected NA Moderately

affected

Agriculture

Industry

Geomorphology Medium cliffs Rocky cliffs Delta

The Goksu delta is known for the important biodiversity of its flora and fauna, which led to the Specially Protected Area status that it claimed in 1991. In 1994, the wetlands of the delta were included in the RAMSAR list (List of Wetlands of International Importance). The richness of the fauna of the Goksu delta is influenced by its geographical location as well as its ecology. The presence of the major sea turtles (Caretta caretta) nesting beaches on the Mediterranean and its importance in terms of ornithology make the delta one of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems in the region. In addition to its important ecological properties, the delta has become an important agricultural area, leading to rapid socioeconomic development since the implementation of irrigation network in 1968. The use of the river as a freshwater resource as well as the aquifers of the region has increased substantially after the 1980s when rice production started to dominate the agricultural landscape. High demand for freshwater - especially for groundwater - has led to sharp decreases in the water tables and the intrusion of sea water into some of the coastal aquifers. Across the region there are 5 municipalities and 7 villages, and the population is increasing with a rate above the average rate of the country. All of the economical, physical and ecological properties of the Göksu delta demonstrate the importance of this low-lying land, which has an average elevation of 2m above sea level (Ozyurt & Ergin, 2009).

Fig. 5. Google Earth image of Goksu Delta, Silifke, Turkey
