**9. Some examples of Discrete Debris Accumulations in the British Isles and possible analogues**

The following illustrations illustrate some of the features in Table 1 as well as highlight interpretational problems associated with them. Where appropriate the UK National Grid co-ordinate system is used.

**Feature name Comments on formation etc Environmental interpretation use** 

ii Involvement with permafrostderived + ice debris input flux

ii Construction by small glacier iii Might develop into rock glacier (permafrost or glacier

various origins and perhaps associated glacier dynamics

v Breach of lateral moraine wall (not known in the British Isles)

ii Permafrost origin iii Rockslide relict iv Composite origin

input flux

Protalus rampart i Debris passively over snowbank

related?)

Push moraine \* Topographic forms may have

Rockslide Large, one-off event, YD or postglacial

Talus (scree slope) Usually unambiguous; Length of

considerable.

time of formation may be

Table 1. This table (derived from Whalley 2009), provides a summary of the main discrete debris accumulations likely to be found in the British Isles and Ireland, other than moraines. The features are listed alphabetically but those marked \* are not referred to in this paper. Protalus lobe is equivalent to 'lobate rock glacier' or 'valley wall rock glacier' of some workers. A protalus ramparts is also known as 'winter nival ridge', 'pronival ridge' or

**9. Some examples of Discrete Debris Accumulations in the British Isles and** 

The following illustrations illustrate some of the features in Table 1 as well as highlight interpretational problems associated with them. Where appropriate the UK National Grid

Rock glacier i Glacier origin

'snow-bed feature'.

**possible analogues** 

co-ordinate system is used.

**or caution** 

possible

altitude

dynamics?

literature

rock glacier)

preservation; dating problems

Size may indicate origin of ice; assumption that snow-derived relates to regional snowline rather than possible glacierisation

Interpretation as glacier margin movement or permafrost-related

Permafrost formative conditions or glacier; use in constructing regional trends for glacier ice (below regional limit) or

assumption that all rock glaciers are of permafrost origin; Difficult

Ice probably not involved but the resultant landform may look like one or other of the features listed here (see also 'landslide'). Bergsturz also used in the

Paraglacial reactivation of old feature possible; may grade into other features down-slope (protalus lobe, protalus rampart,

to trace if rockfall-related

Fig. 6. Terminal area of a small glacier descending from Y Glydder, Snowdonia (SH 625727). This may have been a debris covered section of the lower glacier or even an incipient rock glacier.

Fig. 7. Corrie in Tröllaskagi, Northern Iceland where there has been a small glacier but very little debris to protect the ice from melting (Whalley, 2009). The debris cover is left as an indistinct trace after the ice has melted. A neighbouring corrie has a distinct rock glacier feature (Whalley et al., 1995) produced by high ice fluxes but with corresponding debris input to protect the ice.

Using Discrete Debris Accumulations to Help Interpret

1993; Whalley & Azizi, 2003).

Upland Glaciation of the Younger Dryas in the British Isles 13

Fig. 10. The feature (arrowed) shown in Figure 9 in context of the north-facing cliffs of Robinson (NY 197176) English Lake District. Viewed like this it becomes easier to visualise a small glacier building the moraine/protalus rampart and why is it perhaps difficult to distinguish between the terms if they relate to the size of the snowbank/glacier. A similar example can be found below Fan Hir, Mynydd Du, South Wales (Shakesby & Matthews,

Fig. 11. Protalus rampart being formed by debris falling from the cliff and

Goverdalen, Lyngen Alps, Troms, Norway.

the low weathering rates from cliffs in Upland Britain during the Younger Dryas.

sliding/avalanching to the rampart feature. The rock is gabbro and would be equivalent to

Fig. 8. Protalus rampart, Herdus Scaw (NY 111161) one of several in the English Lake District described by Ballantyne and Kirkbride (1986). This is typical of those found in the uplands of the British Isles and is associated with snowpatch or snowbed. It is not known how long it took to build such a feature but a few hundred years seems a reasonable possibility.

Fig. 9. This protalus rampart (Oxford, 1985) is considerably larger than that shown in Figure 8 and has also been called a moraine (Sissons, 1980).

Fig. 8. Protalus rampart, Herdus Scaw (NY 111161) one of several in the English Lake District described by Ballantyne and Kirkbride (1986). This is typical of those found in the uplands of the British Isles and is associated with snowpatch or snowbed. It is not known how long it took to build such a feature but a few hundred years seems a reasonable

Fig. 9. This protalus rampart (Oxford, 1985) is considerably larger than that shown in Figure

8 and has also been called a moraine (Sissons, 1980).

possibility.

Fig. 10. The feature (arrowed) shown in Figure 9 in context of the north-facing cliffs of Robinson (NY 197176) English Lake District. Viewed like this it becomes easier to visualise a small glacier building the moraine/protalus rampart and why is it perhaps difficult to distinguish between the terms if they relate to the size of the snowbank/glacier. A similar example can be found below Fan Hir, Mynydd Du, South Wales (Shakesby & Matthews, 1993; Whalley & Azizi, 2003).

Fig. 11. Protalus rampart being formed by debris falling from the cliff and sliding/avalanching to the rampart feature. The rock is gabbro and would be equivalent to the low weathering rates from cliffs in Upland Britain during the Younger Dryas. Goverdalen, Lyngen Alps, Troms, Norway.

Using Discrete Debris Accumulations to Help Interpret

Upland Glaciation of the Younger Dryas in the British Isles 15

Fig. 14. Feature (between arrow heads) interpreted as a (talus) rock glacier in the northern Lairig Ghru, Cairngorms, Scotland (NH961037) (Ballantyne et al., 2009; Sandeman &

may be related, although these are much more down-slope, linear features.

Ballantyne, 1996) and is similar to features found in Strath Nethy (see also Wilson 2009). The valley of the Lairig Ghru has many 'avalanche landforms' (Ballantyne & Harris 1994) which

Fig. 15. Although this has some similarities to protalus lobes this feature, on the edge of the

slump/landslide. As it faces south-west snow/ice is unlikely to have lasted long here. However, ridges interpreted as moraines have been found at Seal Edge some 4km to the

Kinder Scout Millstone grit escarpment, Derbyshire (SK089895) is probably a

west where the escarpment is north facing (Johnson et al., 1990).

Fig. 12. Feature below Dead Crags, English Lake District (NY 267318) desribed as protalus rampart (Ballantyne & Kirkbride, 1986) and Oxford (1985). In contrast to the features shown in Figures 8 and 9 the deposit here is very subdued and tends more towards a lobe.

Fig. 13. Rock glacier or protalus lobe below the cliffs of Craig y Bera, Nantlle , Gwynedd, North Wales (SH 541538). This is an unusual feature in that it faces south although the cliffs here appear to weather more easily than other locations in the area. It may be a 'landslide' rather than rock glacier although may be similar to landslide features described by (Watson, 1962) some 20km south at Tal y Llyn.

Fig. 12. Feature below Dead Crags, English Lake District (NY 267318) desribed as protalus rampart (Ballantyne & Kirkbride, 1986) and Oxford (1985). In contrast to the features shown

Fig. 13. Rock glacier or protalus lobe below the cliffs of Craig y Bera, Nantlle , Gwynedd, North Wales (SH 541538). This is an unusual feature in that it faces south although the cliffs here appear to weather more easily than other locations in the area. It may be a 'landslide' rather than rock glacier although may be similar to landslide features described by (Watson,

1962) some 20km south at Tal y Llyn.

in Figures 8 and 9 the deposit here is very subdued and tends more towards a lobe.

Fig. 14. Feature (between arrow heads) interpreted as a (talus) rock glacier in the northern Lairig Ghru, Cairngorms, Scotland (NH961037) (Ballantyne et al., 2009; Sandeman & Ballantyne, 1996) and is similar to features found in Strath Nethy (see also Wilson 2009). The valley of the Lairig Ghru has many 'avalanche landforms' (Ballantyne & Harris 1994) which may be related, although these are much more down-slope, linear features.

Fig. 15. Although this has some similarities to protalus lobes this feature, on the edge of the Kinder Scout Millstone grit escarpment, Derbyshire (SK089895) is probably a slump/landslide. As it faces south-west snow/ice is unlikely to have lasted long here. However, ridges interpreted as moraines have been found at Seal Edge some 4km to the west where the escarpment is north facing (Johnson et al., 1990).

Using Discrete Debris Accumulations to Help Interpret

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Upland Glaciation of the Younger Dryas in the British Isles 17

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#### **10. Conclusions**

There are many features that may have been formed during the Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond Stadial) event in the British Isles. The examples shown here suggest that there are often different, and changing, opinions as to how they were formed and thus their environmental and climatic significance. The size of a ridge on a protalus rampart may be large enough to have been produced by a small glacier as opposed to a snowpatch. Mixing and matching the snow/ice/debris quantities and fluxes may produce a continuum of landforms and interpreting these forms presents problems. These mixtures may also have a significant effect on the mechanical properties, especially where ice is mixed with rock fragments. Landslides may well produce forms that look similar to forms such as protalus lobes and ridges. Although many of these forms have been mapped over thirty years or more, further work is needed to provide unequivocal interpretation of their formative mechanism and thus environmental significance. This is particularly important when the diversity of possible interpretations is viewed. Thus, slope failures (such as Fig. 15) may be indicative of the susceptibility of local geology to slope failure (which may be re-activated by localised human intervention) rather than of past climatic conditions. Conversely, in areas such as the British Isles where there is a strong west-east climatic gradient (Fig. 1), identification of features such as debris accumulations may assist in the evaluation of past climates and the extent of ice or perennial snow.

#### **11. References**

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There are many features that may have been formed during the Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond Stadial) event in the British Isles. The examples shown here suggest that there are often different, and changing, opinions as to how they were formed and thus their environmental and climatic significance. The size of a ridge on a protalus rampart may be large enough to have been produced by a small glacier as opposed to a snowpatch. Mixing and matching the snow/ice/debris quantities and fluxes may produce a continuum of landforms and interpreting these forms presents problems. These mixtures may also have a significant effect on the mechanical properties, especially where ice is mixed with rock fragments. Landslides may well produce forms that look similar to forms such as protalus lobes and ridges. Although many of these forms have been mapped over thirty years or more, further work is needed to provide unequivocal interpretation of their formative mechanism and thus environmental significance. This is particularly important when the diversity of possible interpretations is viewed. Thus, slope failures (such as Fig. 15) may be indicative of the susceptibility of local geology to slope failure (which may be re-activated by localised human intervention) rather than of past climatic conditions. Conversely, in areas such as the British Isles where there is a strong west-east climatic gradient (Fig. 1), identification of features such as debris accumulations may assist in the evaluation of past

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**2** 

Pavel Raška

*Czech Republic* 

**Biogeomorphologic Approaches** 

**to a Study of Hillslope Processes** 

**Using Non-Destructive Methods** 

*Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem,* 

The aim of this chapter is to present new non-destructive methods and techniques used in the biogeomorphologic study of hillslope processes, particularly sheet erosion and shallow landslides. These processes belong to a broad spectre of natural hazards that have significant impacts on landscape and society and their research represents the fundamental issue for applied geomorphology (Panizza, 1996; Alcántara-Ayala, Goudie eds., 2010). Nondestructive methods are not yet well established in biogeomorphologic research despite their relevance in areas protected under conservation law, in fragile habitats and considering their simple field application. To introduce some of these methods in case studies within the context of biogeomorphology, we first give an introduction to the main concepts regarding landform-biota interactions followed by a focus on hillslope processes. In sections 3 and 4, we present two case studies of the application of non-destructive methods to quantify the bioprotective role of fallen trees (trunk dams, log dams) and to analyse short-term surface stability. In the final section, we suggest possible directions for the future development of non-destructive methods in the biogeomorphology of hillslope

The evolution of Earth's surface in contrast with other planets in the Solar System is characterised by the fundamental role played by organisms, which act directly by creating, modifying and destroying landforms and indirectly by changing other factors that influence surface processes, such as climate and the distribution of energy. Looking at the history of research in this field of expertise, it seems that the significance ascribed to organisms (and particularly to vegetation) within a short history of biogeomorphology grew as rapidly as other fundamental concepts within a hundred year history of geomorphology. Most recently, this trend has led to the assumption that vegetation can indeed be a leading factor in global geomorphic change, and understanding its evolution is crucial to establishing an evolutionary view in geomorphology (Corenblit & Steiger, 2009). From a case study in eastern Kentucky, for instance, Phillips (2009) concluded that if only 0.1 % of net primary production of biomass is assumed to be geologically active, it still exceeds the energy of uplift and denudation. In spite of these results, one can hardly imagine vegetation being

**1. Introduction**

processes.

