**4. Landscape conservation and sustainable development**

## **4.1 Converging conservation strategies**

As the previous paragraphs shows, the origins, objectives and management of landscape protection systems throughout Western Europe differ significantly (see Table 3). In the Britain the case was, first and foremost, to conserve the most spectacular, wild or geomorphologic valuable landscapes by establishing National Parks. The establishment of National Parks reflected a particular aesthetic tradition, that was influenced by writerly and artistic conventions, and was applied to areas agreed by a relatively like-minded community of campaigners. It also affirmed the notion of British landscape as something which could be framed and separated from its less worthy surroundings. In France the main goal was to

From Landscape Preservation to Landscape Governance:

means action, experience, experiment, progress, and change.

central government.

regional remit, will make the critical difference.

**4.2. Living models of sustainable use** 

European Experiences with Sustainable Development of Protected Landscapes 259

landscape, gradually evolves into a more inclusive and social view of conservation that links nature and culture, protection and development, top-down planning and bottom-up approaches. It is recognized that designated landscapes are essentially evolving, changing, with new layers continually being superimposed on older ones. This is true for natural change, even more so for change caused by human impact. Human beings have shaped and changed the landscape they live in. The cultural landscape cannot stay the same, as culture

Since the late 1990s British National Parks, French Parcs Naturel Régionaux and German Nature Parks have begun to serve a wider set of social, economic, geological and ecological purposes, including, for instance, adressing quality of life, climate change, conservation of biodiversity, and protecting cultural and geomorphosite heritage. The apparently unbreakable relationship between landscape and visual matters, such as 'scenery' and 'aesthetics', is, therefore, forced open. Obviously, landscape in these modern parks means more than just a scene appealing to the eye. Increasingly, landscape is used as a holistic concept around which a wide array of disciplines can coalesce to explore the integration of human-nature relationships. Furthermore, a shift has taken place in the governance approach of these protected landscapes. Governing of protected landscapes in Britain, France, and Germany more and more relies on networks of interconnected actors from the public, private and voluntary sectors rather than a hierarchy dominated and dened by the

Today's governance of protected landscape designations in Britain, France, and Germany takes place in partnership with those who work and live in the landscapes. Local communities are engaged in the enjoyment, understanding and stewardship of the cultural landscape. Partnerships are set up by the governing park authorities (National Park Authorities, Syndicat Mixte, Zweckverband) in order to build capacity, especially in the commercial and voluntary sectors, to ensure that in the long-term there is the critical mass of skills and expertise needed to sustain informed conservation of the natural and cultural heritage in protected landscapes. The devolving impulse of the British central government, for instance, has resulted in a growing awareness on the part of the Park Authorities of the potential benefits of action in (regional) partnership with local actors. NGO actors, businesses and private parties are involved in setting up landscape management strategies. Partnerships are seen as the key to successful implementation, with the different Park Authorities acting primarily as an enabler for sustainable (regional) development, undertaking or commissioning work where its skills and expertise, or its national and/or

Throughout western Europe, and most notably in Britain, France and Germany, development of protected landscapes is no longer seen as a threat, to be repulsed by an additional layer of planning bureaucracy or authority. The acceptance of the paradigm of development, of course, is stimulated by a number of trends, such as urbanization and the rapid growth of outdoor leisure, the post-productivism of the rural sector, shifting statesociety relations, as well as new insights in conservation science (ecology, geoparks) and spatial planning (multiple-use theories). Infusing all these trends is the emergence of the

enhance rural development in fragile but interesting cultural or geological landscapes. The establishment of PNRs was influenced by the particular French tradition of territorial planning and affirmed the notion of the landscape as something that could strengthen regional identity. In Germany, at last, Nature Parks were conceptualized as antidote for an urbanizing society longing for leisure space. The establishment of *Naturparke* was inspired by social conservationist thinking, and idealized a rural Germany, which had to be rediscovered ('Heimat neu entdecken').


Table 3. Protected landscapes (nature parks) in Britain, France and Germany. Source: Janssen et al. (2007)

Although different in (cultural and historical) origin and objective, recent policy proposals for protected landscapes in Britain, France and Germany converge towards a broadened sustainable development perspective. The original (pre-ecological) idea of protected landscapes as synonymous with scenery, farming as a protector rather than industrialiser of the countryside, and a system of enhanced (spatial) planning controls to safeguard the environment became outdated and obsolete. The narrowly preservationist concept, focused on applying measures necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity, and materials of

enhance rural development in fragile but interesting cultural or geological landscapes. The establishment of PNRs was influenced by the particular French tradition of territorial planning and affirmed the notion of the landscape as something that could strengthen regional identity. In Germany, at last, Nature Parks were conceptualized as antidote for an urbanizing society longing for leisure space. The establishment of *Naturparke* was inspired by social conservationist thinking, and idealized a rural Germany, which had to be

Régionaux

Conservation of cultural or

geological heritage and stimulating of rural economy

Park Authority Syndicat Mixte *Zweckverband* (Special

Sectoral legislation and cultural history

Landscape contracts Ecomuseums Education

Regional products Architectural restrictions Branding

Municipalities Regional governments Civil society organisations European Funds

Table 3. Protected landscapes (nature parks) in Britain, France and Germany. Source:

Although different in (cultural and historical) origin and objective, recent policy proposals for protected landscapes in Britain, France and Germany converge towards a broadened sustainable development perspective. The original (pre-ecological) idea of protected landscapes as synonymous with scenery, farming as a protector rather than industrialiser of the countryside, and a system of enhanced (spatial) planning controls to safeguard the environment became outdated and obsolete. The narrowly preservationist concept, focused on applying measures necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity, and materials of

Naturpark

Sustainable development of the countryside to protect and enhance nature and valuable landscapes

Purpose Association)

*Wettbewerbe* (contests) Conservation contracts

Regional products and

areas)

Eco-Tourism

crafts markets Branding

Municipalities Kreise (regional governments) European Funds

Landschaftsschutzgebiete (landscape protection

 **Britain France Germany** 

*Category* National Parks Parcs Naturel

landscape,

recreation

control

contracts

Branding

government Heritage Lottery National Trust European Funds

Zoning of Land Use Protected areas Ecosystems services

stimulating outdoor

*Number (in 2009)* 14 45 97 *Area (of total country)* 10% 13% 25%

rediscovered ('Heimat neu entdecken').

*Objective* Protection of

*Preservation* Development

*Management* Conservation

*Finance* National

Janssen et al. (2007)

*Administrative organisation* 

landscape, gradually evolves into a more inclusive and social view of conservation that links nature and culture, protection and development, top-down planning and bottom-up approaches. It is recognized that designated landscapes are essentially evolving, changing, with new layers continually being superimposed on older ones. This is true for natural change, even more so for change caused by human impact. Human beings have shaped and changed the landscape they live in. The cultural landscape cannot stay the same, as culture means action, experience, experiment, progress, and change.

Since the late 1990s British National Parks, French Parcs Naturel Régionaux and German Nature Parks have begun to serve a wider set of social, economic, geological and ecological purposes, including, for instance, adressing quality of life, climate change, conservation of biodiversity, and protecting cultural and geomorphosite heritage. The apparently unbreakable relationship between landscape and visual matters, such as 'scenery' and 'aesthetics', is, therefore, forced open. Obviously, landscape in these modern parks means more than just a scene appealing to the eye. Increasingly, landscape is used as a holistic concept around which a wide array of disciplines can coalesce to explore the integration of human-nature relationships. Furthermore, a shift has taken place in the governance approach of these protected landscapes. Governing of protected landscapes in Britain, France, and Germany more and more relies on networks of interconnected actors from the public, private and voluntary sectors rather than a hierarchy dominated and dened by the central government.

Today's governance of protected landscape designations in Britain, France, and Germany takes place in partnership with those who work and live in the landscapes. Local communities are engaged in the enjoyment, understanding and stewardship of the cultural landscape. Partnerships are set up by the governing park authorities (National Park Authorities, Syndicat Mixte, Zweckverband) in order to build capacity, especially in the commercial and voluntary sectors, to ensure that in the long-term there is the critical mass of skills and expertise needed to sustain informed conservation of the natural and cultural heritage in protected landscapes. The devolving impulse of the British central government, for instance, has resulted in a growing awareness on the part of the Park Authorities of the potential benefits of action in (regional) partnership with local actors. NGO actors, businesses and private parties are involved in setting up landscape management strategies. Partnerships are seen as the key to successful implementation, with the different Park Authorities acting primarily as an enabler for sustainable (regional) development, undertaking or commissioning work where its skills and expertise, or its national and/or regional remit, will make the critical difference.

#### **4.2. Living models of sustainable use**

Throughout western Europe, and most notably in Britain, France and Germany, development of protected landscapes is no longer seen as a threat, to be repulsed by an additional layer of planning bureaucracy or authority. The acceptance of the paradigm of development, of course, is stimulated by a number of trends, such as urbanization and the rapid growth of outdoor leisure, the post-productivism of the rural sector, shifting statesociety relations, as well as new insights in conservation science (ecology, geoparks) and spatial planning (multiple-use theories). Infusing all these trends is the emergence of the

From Landscape Preservation to Landscape Governance:

European Experiences with Sustainable Development of Protected Landscapes 261

recognized the role of landscape within the framework of sustainable development. The following objectives have accordingly been articulated: regional policy – balanced opportunities for economic development and the provision of services; agricultural policy – compliance with environmental standards, cultural landscape preservation and multifunctionality; transportation policy – assignment of a high priority to railways and public transport; spatial development – rational use of space and the preservation of natural resources; environment and nature conservation – improved quality of the human

As demonstrated by the European Landscape Convention (ELC) landscapes are more and more recognized "as essential components of people's surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural and natural heritage" (Council of Europe, 2000: 4). The ELC argues that landscape should be valued for reasons of health, education and rural development. The Convention aims to promote landscape protection, management and planning, and to organize European co-operation on landscape issues. In the light of the perceived acceleration of landscape change, it seeks to "respond to the public's wish to enjoy high quality landscapes and to play an active part in the development of landscapes". Signatories to the Convention undertake to establish and implement landscape policies aimed at protecting, management and planning; to integrate landscape in the wider context of sustainability. By taking into account landscape, culture and nature, biotic and abiotic, the Council of Europe seeks to protect the quality of life and well-being of Europeans from a

Despite the ubiquity of 'sustainability' as a concept, within protected landscapes several attempts are made to protect the environment, to promote sound development and to improve the quality of life for people now and in the future. The principles of sustainability, for instance, are applied in a diversity of grassroots projects in order to stabilize and reduce the region's footprint. The intention is not to strive for a zero-growth situation but instead adopt a strategy that develops a mutual compatibility between environmental protection and continuing environmental growth. An interesting question in that regard is to what extent the emerging 'sustainability paradigm', which integrates economic activity with conservation in a sustainable manner, is running the risk of going too far in compromising conservation in favour of developmental interests (Antrop, 2006; Mose, 2007; Janssen, 2009).

This chapter has highlighted that cultural landscapes are increasingly understood as something not merely to be protected and preserved. The World Heritage Convention and the European Landscape Convention (Council of Europe, 2000, 2006) as well as the new concepts and strategies for nature parks in Britain, France and Germany propose considering cultural landscapes in general, and protected landscapes in particular, also as a force to promote sustainable (regional) development. The notion of development and change is a key component of the concept of sustainable development itself. Indeed, sustainable development not only involves sustaining what has been realised as Brundtland defines, but also sustaining future development (Brundtland, 1987). It means the preservation of opportunities, but also the creation of new resources and opportunities for

environment, and the conservation of biodiversity and geomorphologic diversity.

sustainable development perspective (Council of Europe, 2006).

**5. Concluding remarks** 

future generations.

sustainable development discourse, popularised in 1980 by the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN et al., 1980), and firmly established in 1992 by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. By the close of the twentieth century, all areas of nature and landscape policy are being expected to demonstrate their contribution to more sustainable living.

The re-emergence of landscapes as cultural action arenas for sustainable development is inseparable linked to the dual process of globalisation and regionalisation. In the final quarter of the twentieth century the solidification of the concept of the nation-state and its unwieldy structure has been weakened, and with it the (homogenizing) notions of modernity and universality (Harvey, 1989). Local and regional specificities of space, form and place (territorial distinctiveness) are put forward to counteract the dislocation and lack of meaning in modern society. Contextual forces are to give a sense of place and meaning in a globalizing world. Increasingly cultural landscapes are seen as such a contextual force. After a period of nationalism we observe a renewed interest in the region all over Europe: regional differences and traditions are cherished, the issue of regional identity is widely debated, and new regional movements are emerging (Keating, 1998). Some even speak about the 'rise of regional Europe' (Harvie, 1994). The spatial and material dimension of this 'regional Europe' is symbolised by the manifold European cultural landscapes. The outstanding richness, regional diversity and uniqueness of landscapes form collectively a common European natural and cultural heritage (Pedroli et al., 2007). The existence of specific regional identities, each with its typical landscape heritage, is actively promoted, defended and helped by EU policy, programmes and funds, like the LEADER Rural Development programmes, INTERREG, and networks like the European Geoparks Network, built up with the support of European Union initiatives.

As a result of the emerging sustainability agenda a commitment to maintain and enhance the landscape quality of rural and urban areas is a central theme of several state and European visions of a sustainable countryside. Against this background protected landscapes throughout Europe more and more function as flagships for a new and integrated public policy for rural areas. Since landscape conservation and countryside development are aspects of a single whole, conservation increasingly is seen as an integral part of sustainable management. This is highlighted by the above-mentioned British, French and German protected landscapes (be it National Parks, Nature Reserves, protected landscapes or Geoparks), which, since the 1990s, strive towards a regional integration of agriculture, nature and landscape, thereby overcoming the often-strong sectoral division of countryside, regional and landscape policy.

Already in the 1980s IUCN recognized protected landscapes as "living models of sustainable use" (Lucas, 1992). Recent political commitment to sustainable development on a European level further strengthens the idea of an inclusive approach for protected landscapes (Council for the EU, 2006). The concept of sustainable development encourages policy officials to address the environmental and social as well as economic dimensions of rural areas. Because of the particular origin and nature of protected landscapes, principally the close relationship between landscape and the people connected with it category V protected areas […] could very well "become pioneers in society's search for more sustainable futures" (Phillips, 2002). Several public policies in Europe have recently recognized the role of landscape within the framework of sustainable development. The following objectives have accordingly been articulated: regional policy – balanced opportunities for economic development and the provision of services; agricultural policy – compliance with environmental standards, cultural landscape preservation and multifunctionality; transportation policy – assignment of a high priority to railways and public transport; spatial development – rational use of space and the preservation of natural resources; environment and nature conservation – improved quality of the human environment, and the conservation of biodiversity and geomorphologic diversity.

As demonstrated by the European Landscape Convention (ELC) landscapes are more and more recognized "as essential components of people's surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural and natural heritage" (Council of Europe, 2000: 4). The ELC argues that landscape should be valued for reasons of health, education and rural development. The Convention aims to promote landscape protection, management and planning, and to organize European co-operation on landscape issues. In the light of the perceived acceleration of landscape change, it seeks to "respond to the public's wish to enjoy high quality landscapes and to play an active part in the development of landscapes". Signatories to the Convention undertake to establish and implement landscape policies aimed at protecting, management and planning; to integrate landscape in the wider context of sustainability. By taking into account landscape, culture and nature, biotic and abiotic, the Council of Europe seeks to protect the quality of life and well-being of Europeans from a sustainable development perspective (Council of Europe, 2006).

Despite the ubiquity of 'sustainability' as a concept, within protected landscapes several attempts are made to protect the environment, to promote sound development and to improve the quality of life for people now and in the future. The principles of sustainability, for instance, are applied in a diversity of grassroots projects in order to stabilize and reduce the region's footprint. The intention is not to strive for a zero-growth situation but instead adopt a strategy that develops a mutual compatibility between environmental protection and continuing environmental growth. An interesting question in that regard is to what extent the emerging 'sustainability paradigm', which integrates economic activity with conservation in a sustainable manner, is running the risk of going too far in compromising conservation in favour of developmental interests (Antrop, 2006; Mose, 2007; Janssen, 2009).
