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A multiple reference condition analysis has been proposed for UMRS ecosystem restoration planning (Nestler and Theiling, 2010). Sufficient data exist to evaluate hydrologic and geomorphic ecosystem drivers and land cover in presettlement, several historic snapshots, and contemporary conditions for nearly the entire 2.8 million acres. The virtual reference condition (i.e., simulated hydrology, potential vegetation, or geomorphic features), or plausible alternative future condition, is an important tool to estimate future without project condition and the response to alternative restoration plans (Figure 11; USACE, 2000). It is possible to simulate alternative floodplain management scenarios and extrapolate benefits as simple acreage estimates (Figure 11, bottom), potential vegetation (Heitmeyer, 2008; 2010), or any range of habitat suitability (USFWS, 1980) or ecosystem services metrics that

Fig. 11. Examples for UMRS benefits that may be attained by alternative floodplain management plans. LTRM\_WTR = low flow surface water, WS\_2YR = 50 percent exceedence/2-year flood, Levee = leveed area, WS\_Pool = potential inundation under

An Army Corps of Engineers, Long Term Training Program grant from the Rock Island District and Headquarters supported much of Dr. Theiling's effort. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul, Rock Island, and St. Louis Districts collaborated on archaeological

can be attributed to potential land cover estimates.

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**8** 

*Saudi Arabia* 

**Anthropogenic Induced Geomorphological** 

Ronald A. Loughland1, Khaled A. Al-Abdulkader1,

*1Environmental Protection Department, Saudi Aramco* 

Alexander Wyllie and Bruce O. Burwell

**Change Along the Western Arabian Gulf Coast** 

The term "Anthropocene" (the geological age since the industrial revolution) popularized by the Nobel Prize winner Paul Crutzen is apt for the change that has occurred along the Saudi Arabian Coast of the Arabian Gulf. Goudie and Viles (2010) expand on this concept emphasizing the impact of man on the landscape. This Chapter identifies and quantifies changes in the coastal ecosystems of the Arabian Gulf since 1967, and highlights those remaining valuable natural habitats and environmental assets. There is a paucity of data on coastal changes along the Western Arabian Gulf coast, possibly due to restricted access to coastal areas. The authors however have had a unique opportunity to undertake repeated visits to coastal areas and with the use of remote sensed imagery have been able to

The genesis of this coastline is principally due to the movement of the Arabian Tectonic Plate which began in the Middle to Late Cretaceous period when it collided with the Eurasian Plate. The result of the compression caused by this collision was the subduction of the Arabian Plate during the Tertiary and the formation of what is now termed the Zagros Fault Zone located in present day Iran (AlNaji, 2009, Haq and Al-Qahtani, 2005). This, with the separation of the African Continental Plate possibly due to the thinning of the crust (Seber et al., 2009, Hansen et al., 2006, Daradich et al., 2003) resulting in a north-westerly tilting and the formation of the Arabian Gulf basin. Erosion of the uplifted plate resulted in the deposition of paleo-deltaic features clearly visible in digital elevations models derived from the space Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data in the current day Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. During the Quaternary the plate became more arid and the Aeolian influence became more dominant and resulted in the formation of massive ergs that are a major landform of the Arabian Peninsula such as the Rub Al Khali Desert. The west and east coasts of the Gulf are completely different in their structure and geomorphology

Coastal processes are largely wind driven as the maximum significant wave height is less than 1.5 meters; maximum mean wave period of 3-5 seconds; tidal speed less than 0.3 m/s; and maximum range in tidal water level is from 0.5 – 2.5 meters (Rakha et al., 2007) which are all slight when compared to open ocean levels. This low energy environment is

**1. Introduction** 

document changes.

because of their tectonic origins.

