**3.1 Estimation of the point source of pollution**

In the Municipality of Resen, according to the 2002 census of the Republic of Macedonia, 16,825 people live in 44 inhabited places. In addition there are several tourist centres that are creating additional pressure on the sewage network and water bodies, especially in the summer period: Hotel Pretor, Pretor – 54 guests and 50 summer houses (around 200 persons = 254 people/total); Hotel Kitka, Resen, 40 guests in total; Auto camp Krani, house trailers and tents 3,000 beds, 42 villas 168 beds and 32 bungalows 130 beds = 3,298 people/total; private accommodation in villages Brajčino, D.Dupeni, Pretor, Slivnica, Ljubojno and Stenje = 375 tourists. The calculations for this magnitude of pressure are presented on Tab. 1.

According to these calculations, current load from household sewage (without wastewater treatment) plays a significant role in the pollution of water bodies in Prespa Lake watershed.

On the Macedonian side of Prespa Lake there are several medium-size enterprises from eight industrial branches: food processing, poultry farming, textile, metal processing, wood processing, civil construction, ceramics and the chemical industry.

Based on the environmental data provided by the enterprises themselves, an overall estimation of the point source pollution can be determined as presented in Tab. 2 (values of considerable pollution are coloured in red):

A shelter for over 90 species of migratory birds, Prespa Lakes are also home to tens of species that have been officially registered as critically endangered or vulnerable. Among them is the Dalmatian Pelican, one of the largest flying birds in the world, who seeks secluded wetlands to build nests and to hatch chicks in what is its largest breeding colony

 Fig. 10. Dominant reed bed flora and the Dalmatian Pelican (*Pelicanus crispus*) on Macro

*Lemneto-Spirodeletum polyrrhize aldrovandetosum* is the most important.

processing, civil construction, ceramics and the chemical industry.

considerable pollution are coloured in red):

**3.1 Estimation of the point source of pollution** 

From the phytocoenological point of view, the presence of endemic plant community

**3 Anthropogenic impacts on the status of surface and ground water bodies** 

In the Municipality of Resen, according to the 2002 census of the Republic of Macedonia, 16,825 people live in 44 inhabited places. In addition there are several tourist centres that are creating additional pressure on the sewage network and water bodies, especially in the summer period: Hotel Pretor, Pretor – 54 guests and 50 summer houses (around 200 persons = 254 people/total); Hotel Kitka, Resen, 40 guests in total; Auto camp Krani, house trailers and tents 3,000 beds, 42 villas 168 beds and 32 bungalows 130 beds = 3,298 people/total; private accommodation in villages Brajčino, D.Dupeni, Pretor, Slivnica, Ljubojno and Stenje = 375 tourists. The calculations for this magnitude of pressure are

According to these calculations, current load from household sewage (without wastewater treatment) plays a significant role in the pollution of water bodies in Prespa

On the Macedonian side of Prespa Lake there are several medium-size enterprises from eight industrial branches: food processing, poultry farming, textile, metal processing, wood

Based on the environmental data provided by the enterprises themselves, an overall estimation of the point source pollution can be determined as presented in Tab. 2 (values of

worldwide.

Prespa Lake.

presented on Tab. 1.

Lake watershed.


Table 1. Calculations for 20,792 people (together with 3,967 tourists), based on average loads per person.

<sup>1</sup> Based on German ATV 131A Standard (May, 2000) and German Wastewater Ordinance (2004) for assessing wastewater load, approved by Guidance for the Analysis of Pressures and Impacts in accordance with the WFD (2004).

Environmental Changes in Lakes Catchments

are used for lamination.

*2. Industrial pollution* 

are reported to be 1,000 – 5,000 mg\*L-1 (BREF, 2003).

there are other point source pressures like fish farming.

amount of sparsely built-up areas.

causing pressure on the water bodies.

water outflows that do not have their own infrastructure.

as a Trigger for Rapid Eutrophication – A Prespa Lake Case Study 75

Using these emission factors, total releases of NH3 from manure in "Swiss Lion Agrar" poultry farm are: 13,600 kg/year. Some 720 mg\*L-1 of the total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations of 100 mg\*L-1 are released on average per year. The BOD levels

Process wastewater is a major source of pollutants from textile industries (WHO, 1993). It is typically alkaline and has high BOD, from 700 to 2,000 milligrams per litre, and high chemical oxygen demand (COD), at approximately 2 to 5 times the BOD level. The wastewater also contains chromium, solids, oil and possibly toxic organics, including phenols from dyeing and finishing, and halogenated organics from processes such as bleaching. Dye wastewaters are frequently highly coloured and may contain heavy metals such as copper and chromium. Wool processing may release bacteria and other pathogens as well. Pesticides are sometimes used for the preservation of natural fibres and these are transferred to wastewaters during washing and scouring operations. Pesticides are used for mothproofing, brominated flame retardants are used for synthetic fabrics and isocyanates

*Point sources of pollution* in the watercourses arrive from domestic sewage networks, WWTP, sparsely built-up areas, industry, contaminated sites or storm water outfalls. In addition,

1. *Domestic wastewater (household sewage) load estimations based on pressure from 20,792 people (without WWT):* BOD5 – 455,344.8 kg/year; COD - 834,798 kg/year; total suspended solids – 531,235.6 kg/year; N - 66,783.9 kg/year; P – 13,660.3 kg/year. Only 55% of settlements are connected to the domestic wastewater system (data only for Golema River basin). In the whole Prespa watershed percentage is even lower, due to the high

On the Macedonian side of Prespa Lake there are several medium-size enterprises from eight (8) industrial branches: food processing, poultry farming, textile, metal processing, wood processing, civil construction, ceramics and the chemical industry, all

Major pressures are coming from industry facilities "Algreta" (aluminium & zinc foundry), "Hamzali" (ceramic plant), food and beverage industry "CD Fruit", "Swiss Lion Agroplod" (food and beverages) and "Swiss Lion Agrar" (poultry farm). Impacts on the water body include high levels of ammonium, nitrates, phosphorus, aluminium, very high concentrations of Cl2, high BOD5 and COD concentrations, increased number of thermo-tolerant coliform bacteria, increase in heavy metals pollution-Fe, Zn, Cr, Cd, very high turbidity, phenols, benzene, halogenated organics, illegal pesticides in high quantities, brominated flame retardants, isocyanates used for lamination, oils and grease. Both "Swiss Lion Agroplod" and "CD Fruit" Carev Dvor are planning to have their small WWTP operational in the near future, but currently they are discharging effluents directly into the water bodies (no pre-treatment). Wastewater coming from industrial facilities only in the town of Resen is estimated to be approximately 69,350 m3/year. Total annual amount of wastewater from CD Fruit is around 9,000 m3. There is also pressure from agricultural activities and from sparsely built-up areas and storm


Table 2. Calculation of various pollutants per source of pollution.

From a poultry farm, typical emissions to wastewater include: ammonia, uric acid, magnesium, sulphates, total nitrogen (N) and total phosphorus (P), as well as small concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb).

<sup>∗</sup> According to the Regulation for Classification of Water (Official Gazette of the Republic of Macedonia No. 18-99)

Using these emission factors, total releases of NH3 from manure in "Swiss Lion Agrar" poultry farm are: 13,600 kg/year. Some 720 mg\*L-1 of the total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations of 100 mg\*L-1 are released on average per year. The BOD levels are reported to be 1,000 – 5,000 mg\*L-1 (BREF, 2003).

Process wastewater is a major source of pollutants from textile industries (WHO, 1993). It is typically alkaline and has high BOD, from 700 to 2,000 milligrams per litre, and high chemical oxygen demand (COD), at approximately 2 to 5 times the BOD level. The wastewater also contains chromium, solids, oil and possibly toxic organics, including phenols from dyeing and finishing, and halogenated organics from processes such as bleaching. Dye wastewaters are frequently highly coloured and may contain heavy metals such as copper and chromium. Wool processing may release bacteria and other pathogens as well. Pesticides are sometimes used for the preservation of natural fibres and these are transferred to wastewaters during washing and scouring operations. Pesticides are used for mothproofing, brominated flame retardants are used for synthetic fabrics and isocyanates are used for lamination.

*Point sources of pollution* in the watercourses arrive from domestic sewage networks, WWTP, sparsely built-up areas, industry, contaminated sites or storm water outfalls. In addition, there are other point source pressures like fish farming.

1. *Domestic wastewater (household sewage) load estimations based on pressure from 20,792 people (without WWT):* BOD5 – 455,344.8 kg/year; COD - 834,798 kg/year; total suspended solids – 531,235.6 kg/year; N - 66,783.9 kg/year; P – 13,660.3 kg/year. Only 55% of settlements are connected to the domestic wastewater system (data only for Golema River basin). In the whole Prespa watershed percentage is even lower, due to the high amount of sparsely built-up areas.

*2. Industrial pollution* 

74 Studies on Environmental and Applied Geomorphology

*Algreta AD Resen (14.10.2009) Recipient Golema River*

25 30 25 29 53 10 – 30 162

*CD Frut, Carev Dvor (28.11.2008) Recipient Bolsnica River* 

*MDK ( II class waters)*∗

*Total:* 

*SwissLion (Agroplod) doo (5.11.2008) 1st point (coffee & peanuts)* 

**pH value** 6.5 6.5 8.7 6.54 6.2 6.5- 6.3 6.88

**BOD5 (mg/L)** 4.5 6.6 7.3 7.7 5.3 2 – 4 31.4 **COD (mg/L)** 341 372 341 18.4 9 2.5 – 5 1.081

**( mg/L)** 3 50 3 0.4 1.3 15 57.7 **Nitirites (mg/L)** 0 0 0 0 0.3 0.5 0.3 **NH4 (mg/L)** 0.4 0.150 0 0.19 0.1 0.02 0.84 **Fe (mg/L)** / / / >1 0.25 0.3 1.25 **Mn (mg/L)** / / / 0.315 0.3 0.05 0.615 **Al (mg/L)** / / / 0.009 / 1-1.5 0.009 **Cd (mg/L)** / / / / 0.0005 0.0001 0.0005 **Cl2 (mg/L)** 14.9 17.7 82.2 / 0.0025 0.002 114.8 **Cr total (mg/L)** / / / / 0.038 0.05 0.038 **Cu (mg/L)** / / / / 0.012 0.01 0.012 **Ni (mg/L)** / / / / 0.035 0.05 0.035 **Zn (mg/L)** / / / / 0.075 0.1 0.075

**(NTU)** 20 10 20 393 / 0.5-1 443

**TDS** (mg/L) 385 290 580 / 146 500 1,401

From a poultry farm, typical emissions to wastewater include: ammonia, uric acid, magnesium, sulphates, total nitrogen (N) and total phosphorus (P), as well as small

According to the Regulation for Classification of Water (Official Gazette of the Republic of Macedonia

240,000 240,000 240,000 / / 5 – 50 240,000

**Total N** (mg/L) / / / / / 0.2 -0.32

**Total P** (mg/L) / / / / / 10 – 25

Table 2. Calculation of various pollutants per source of pollution.

concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, Cd, Hg and Pb).

*Indicator:* 

**Total suspended solids TSS (mg/L)** 

**Nitrates** 

**Turbidity** 

**Eutrophication Indicators –**  *Most probable number of thermotolerant coliform bacteria /100 ml* 

 ∗

No. 18-99)

*SwissLion (Agroplod) doo (5.11.2008) 3rd point (biscuitsnapolitana*

*SwissLion (Agroplod) doo (5.11.2008) 2nd point (resana cakes)* 

> On the Macedonian side of Prespa Lake there are several medium-size enterprises from eight (8) industrial branches: food processing, poultry farming, textile, metal processing, wood processing, civil construction, ceramics and the chemical industry, all causing pressure on the water bodies.

> Major pressures are coming from industry facilities "Algreta" (aluminium & zinc foundry), "Hamzali" (ceramic plant), food and beverage industry "CD Fruit", "Swiss Lion Agroplod" (food and beverages) and "Swiss Lion Agrar" (poultry farm). Impacts on the water body include high levels of ammonium, nitrates, phosphorus, aluminium, very high concentrations of Cl2, high BOD5 and COD concentrations, increased number of thermo-tolerant coliform bacteria, increase in heavy metals pollution-Fe, Zn, Cr, Cd, very high turbidity, phenols, benzene, halogenated organics, illegal pesticides in high quantities, brominated flame retardants, isocyanates used for lamination, oils and grease. Both "Swiss Lion Agroplod" and "CD Fruit" Carev Dvor are planning to have their small WWTP operational in the near future, but currently they are discharging effluents directly into the water bodies (no pre-treatment). Wastewater coming from industrial facilities only in the town of Resen is estimated to be approximately 69,350 m3/year. Total annual amount of wastewater from CD Fruit is around 9,000 m3. There is also pressure from agricultural activities and from sparsely built-up areas and storm water outflows that do not have their own infrastructure.

Environmental Changes in Lakes Catchments

per year and wheat production fields.

Table 4. Use of pesticides in the Prespa region.

fertiliser use.

**4. Materials and methods** 

through the fertilisation process in the Prespa region.

as a Trigger for Rapid Eutrophication – A Prespa Lake Case Study 77

advised not to apply certain nutrients – in particular P and K – for a period of three to four years in order to reach the required balance. Yet again, this cannot be taken as a general rule for the entire region, since there are farmers who, due to limited finances, do not use high quantities of fertilisers. Nevertheless, there is significant proof of overuse of phosphorous and it should be assumed as one of the major risks for pollution and eutrophication of the water from agricultural sources. More than 1,000 tons of potassium oxide is also applied

There are no exact data available regarding the amount of pesticides used in the Prespa region. Table 4 represents rough data on the use of pesticides in the entire Prespa region, calculations based on average quantities of pesticides used for one hectare of apple orchards

Pesticide type Quantity (tons per year) % of total

In total 64,000 kg of pesticides are used each year in the Prespa region. The behaviour of pesticides in the soil varies, some are easily soluble and move with water while others are less movable. It is hard to predict the movement of pesticides in general and each active matter together with other components used to produce pesticides should be investigated separately. It is obvious that much lower amount of pesticides is used in comparison with

Due to the inconsistency of the current solid waste management system in the Municipality of Resen, including Golema River watershed, as well as the low public awareness, significant quantities of mainly organic (waste apples and yard waste), and partly hazardous (pesticide packaging) solid waste generated by the agricultural activity are being disposed of in the river channels and the riparian corridors. This inappropriately disposed waste has considerable negative impact on the surface, ground waters and soil, and

Aiming to resolve the detected intensive eutrophication of Prespa Lake watershed and to produce a management plan that is going to address this issue, the analyses presented in this chapter have actually been conducted in order to resolve the anthropogenic from natural processes of eutrophication. By focusing on the *reference conditions*, we have been able to detect the intensive human impact dated 1,500 years ago through massive deforestation and subsequent washout of nutrients into the Prespa Lake. This influence in combination with the very recent (only some 100 years) intensive pollution impacts in the watershed have triggered the turnover of the lake from the nitrogen towards phosphorus

especially on the Golema River, hence influencing the Prespa Lake system (Fig. 11).

driven ecosystem and corresponding cyanobacterial toxic 'water blooms'.

**Fungicides** 38.5 60% **Herbicides** 3.2 5% **Insecticides** 22.5 35% Total 64.2 100%

## **3.2 Estimation of diffuse sources of pollution**

Based on information given by representatives of the Union of Agricultural Associations and the local AES office, by and large fertilisation of apples/fruits among individual growers in the Prespa region is performed in three phases, as follows (Tab. 3):


Some farmers limit fertiliser application to only twice per year. Use of organic fertilisers is very rare. Based on these data, the total annual quantity of fertilisers used for apple production in the Golema River basin (for 1,200 ha) equals roughly 1,900 tons. There is no information on fertiliser use for other crop types, but this type of data is not of interest because farmers are not growing anything other than apples and the future trend is in increased apple production. Nevertheless, the presented fertilisation scheme should be regarded as a mere generalisation used for approximation purposes and presented as the total calculated quantity.

In total 920,150 kg of nitrogen as nitrogen fertilisers is applied each season. It is practically impossible to determine to what extent farmers in the region overuse fertilisers. Furthermore, some of the more important general characteristics for the soil types found in the region are that mechanical content of all types with high percentage is sandy and with dominance of grit fractions, which means that the soil types are permeable for water and dissolved mineral matters. Therefore, water from precipitation and/or irrigation can exert a strong impact on the dilution of nitrogen forms from the fertilisers and other materials, which can finally reach the water courses by underground leaching or surface run-off.


Table 3. Practice of fertilisation in private orchards in the Prespa region.

In total about 477 tons of phosphorous in P2O5 form is used in the catchment area. As a result of the widely accepted perception of low fertility of the soil with available phosphorous, a lot of P-fertilisers are used. Examples have been reported that farmers who have analysed soil samples in various soil-testing laboratories in the country have been

Based on information given by representatives of the Union of Agricultural Associations and the local AES office, by and large fertilisation of apples/fruits among individual

• autumn basic fertilisation with complex NPK (4:7:28) fertiliser in amounts of 500 to 700

• early spring fertilising with complex NPK (15:15:15) in amounts of 400 to 600 kg\*ha-1;

• late spring fertilisation with usage of nitrate fertilisers, such as ammonium nitrate, in

Some farmers limit fertiliser application to only twice per year. Use of organic fertilisers is very rare. Based on these data, the total annual quantity of fertilisers used for apple production in the Golema River basin (for 1,200 ha) equals roughly 1,900 tons. There is no information on fertiliser use for other crop types, but this type of data is not of interest because farmers are not growing anything other than apples and the future trend is in increased apple production. Nevertheless, the presented fertilisation scheme should be regarded as a mere generalisation used for approximation purposes and presented as the

In total 920,150 kg of nitrogen as nitrogen fertilisers is applied each season. It is practically impossible to determine to what extent farmers in the region overuse fertilisers. Furthermore, some of the more important general characteristics for the soil types found in the region are that mechanical content of all types with high percentage is sandy and with dominance of grit fractions, which means that the soil types are permeable for water and dissolved mineral matters. Therefore, water from precipitation and/or irrigation can exert a strong impact on the dilution of nitrogen forms from the fertilisers and other materials, which can finally reach the water courses by underground leaching or surface run-off.

> Quantity (kg/ha)

Total **1600 239 124 271** 

In total about 477 tons of phosphorous in P2O5 form is used in the catchment area. As a result of the widely accepted perception of low fertility of the soil with available phosphorous, a lot of P-fertilisers are used. Examples have been reported that farmers who have analysed soil samples in various soil-testing laboratories in the country have been

Active substances (kg/ha)

**N P2O5 K2O** 

700 28 49 196

500 75 75 75

400 136 0.0 0.0

Fertiliser Type

> NPK 4:7:28

15:15:15

34%

Table 3. Practice of fertilisation in private orchards in the Prespa region.

growers in the Prespa region is performed in three phases, as follows (Tab. 3):

**3.2 Estimation of diffuse sources of pollution** 

kg per hectare (kg\*ha-1);

total calculated quantity.

System of Fertilisation and Period

Early spring fertilisation NPK

Late spring fertilisation NH4NO3

Basic autumn fertilisation

amounts of 300 to 400 kg\*ha-1.

and

advised not to apply certain nutrients – in particular P and K – for a period of three to four years in order to reach the required balance. Yet again, this cannot be taken as a general rule for the entire region, since there are farmers who, due to limited finances, do not use high quantities of fertilisers. Nevertheless, there is significant proof of overuse of phosphorous and it should be assumed as one of the major risks for pollution and eutrophication of the water from agricultural sources. More than 1,000 tons of potassium oxide is also applied through the fertilisation process in the Prespa region.

There are no exact data available regarding the amount of pesticides used in the Prespa region. Table 4 represents rough data on the use of pesticides in the entire Prespa region, calculations based on average quantities of pesticides used for one hectare of apple orchards per year and wheat production fields.


Table 4. Use of pesticides in the Prespa region.

In total 64,000 kg of pesticides are used each year in the Prespa region. The behaviour of pesticides in the soil varies, some are easily soluble and move with water while others are less movable. It is hard to predict the movement of pesticides in general and each active matter together with other components used to produce pesticides should be investigated separately. It is obvious that much lower amount of pesticides is used in comparison with fertiliser use.

Due to the inconsistency of the current solid waste management system in the Municipality of Resen, including Golema River watershed, as well as the low public awareness, significant quantities of mainly organic (waste apples and yard waste), and partly hazardous (pesticide packaging) solid waste generated by the agricultural activity are being disposed of in the river channels and the riparian corridors. This inappropriately disposed waste has considerable negative impact on the surface, ground waters and soil, and especially on the Golema River, hence influencing the Prespa Lake system (Fig. 11).
