**2. Coastal geomorphology and ICZM**

The coast is easily defined as one of the most diverse and dynamic environments found anywhere on earth. Many factors (geologic, physical, biological and anthropomorphic) are responsible for shaping the coast and carrying on its dynamic characteristics. Geological events created the sediment that formed the foundation of the modern coastal zone. Over time, various physical processes have acted on this pre-existing geology, eroding, shaping and modifying the landscape. These mechanisms are influenced by tectonics, climate, ecology and human actions. At the same time, many of these drivers can be affected by the evolution of the Earth's surface. Geomorphology is the science that focuses on the quantitative analysis of these drivers and these physical processes that shape the Earth's surface (Sanders & Clark, 2010). The nature of these processes depends strongly on the landscape or landform under investigation and the time scales and length scales of interest. The primary driving forces that cause change in most landforms include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonics and volcanism.

Coastal geomorphology deals with the shaping of coastal features (landforms), the processes at work on them and the changes taking place (Bird, 2008). Understanding changes at the coast can require an examination of processes well outside the coastal zone, focusing on the interactions of coastal-zone features and hydrologic, meteorological and fluvial forces by means of sediment transport. Fluid dynamics produce sediment transport, causing geomorphic change to a continuous extent of temporal and spatial scales. On the other hand, the change of geomorphic features alters the boundary conditions for fluid dynamics. In

tributaries or a river basin for a study of coastal erosion). Accordingly, local variability might be missed both in time and in space. The extent of the research area (whether it is a sand grain, a cliff, a coastal town or a region) is determined by a spatial scale using two axes: planform (also called 'long-shore') or profile ('cross-shore') (Woodroffe, 2002). A range of geomorphologic processes and human activities exist on both axes, influencing ICZM plans. The temporal scale is another multilayer factor that is important for the preparation of ICZM plans. Overall, geomorphologic scales exist across a wide range, from seconds to hundreds of years (Davies, 1993). On one side, human activities on coastal areas take a longer time to impact shorelines. First of all, most actions take a couple of years to carry out (for example, dams along river basins causing coastal erosion). Next, human use is expected to continue for 50 to 100 years (maybe more). This range of the temporal scale is also defined as the engineering timescale (French & Burningham, 2009). On the other hand, ICZM requires a long-term planning perspective, considering short-term benefits and solutions for urgent problems as well as integrating future risks, such as climate change. Although ICZM started as a form of shoreline management and flood risk planning, it evolved into a management concept, covering social, economic and ecological assets and including a diverse range of problems from natural disasters to man-made events - such as oil spillage - being generally accepted within coastal management literature (examples given in McFadden et al., 2007 such as Bower & Turner, 1997; Sorensen, 1997; European Commission, 1999; Kay & Alder, 1999; de Groot & Orford, 2000). Thus, different spatial and time scales exist within an ICZM plan (McFadden et al, 2007) and the geomorphology of coastal areas is one of the important

The coast is easily defined as one of the most diverse and dynamic environments found anywhere on earth. Many factors (geologic, physical, biological and anthropomorphic) are responsible for shaping the coast and carrying on its dynamic characteristics. Geological events created the sediment that formed the foundation of the modern coastal zone. Over time, various physical processes have acted on this pre-existing geology, eroding, shaping and modifying the landscape. These mechanisms are influenced by tectonics, climate, ecology and human actions. At the same time, many of these drivers can be affected by the evolution of the Earth's surface. Geomorphology is the science that focuses on the quantitative analysis of these drivers and these physical processes that shape the Earth's surface (Sanders & Clark, 2010). The nature of these processes depends strongly on the landscape or landform under investigation and the time scales and length scales of interest. The primary driving forces that cause change in most landforms include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonics

Coastal geomorphology deals with the shaping of coastal features (landforms), the processes at work on them and the changes taking place (Bird, 2008). Understanding changes at the coast can require an examination of processes well outside the coastal zone, focusing on the interactions of coastal-zone features and hydrologic, meteorological and fluvial forces by means of sediment transport. Fluid dynamics produce sediment transport, causing geomorphic change to a continuous extent of temporal and spatial scales. On the other hand, the change of geomorphic features alters the boundary conditions for fluid dynamics. In

parameters that define these scales.

and volcanism.

**2. Coastal geomorphology and ICZM** 

turn, it produces further variations in sediment-transport patterns which again cause changes in geomorphic features. These processes happen over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales (Fig. 1). For example, interaction with the near shore profile changes the properties of waves (generated by offshore storms) when entering the coastal zone (Woodroffe, 2002). The resulting wave and flow characteristics control the cross-shore and long-shore variations. The characteristics of the bottom slope and the variations of waves and tides dominate the dynamics of sediment fluxes, causing changes such as erosion and accretion. On the other hand, small-scale processes control the turbulent dissipation of breaking waves, the bottom boundary layer and the bed form mechanisms that shape the local sediment flux (US Army Corps of Engineers, 2003).

Fig. 1. Temporal and spatial scales of geomorphologic and coastal processes.

The rate of the response of geomorphic features to coastal processes depends on the scale, with larger features taking relatively longer to change. For example, under large waves significant changes in small-scale bed forms can occur within a single wave cycle, but changes in large-scale bed forms are established some time after the occurrence of the main driving force. Winds, waves, tides, storms and stream discharge are important driving forces in the coastal zone (Woodroffe, 2002).

Spatial and Time Balancing Act:

Fig. 2. Mechanisms affecting coastal geomorphology.

Coastal Geomorphology in View of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) 145

Vulnerability assessments are one of the tools used by coastal researchers to highlight the problem areas\sectors\processes that need management, both at the present and in the future. There are different vulnerability assessment methods which use only numerical modelling or highly qualitative procedures answering a range of questions from different perspectives (IPCC, 2007). Despite the use of computers, geographical information systems, remote sensing technologies, data management and support systems and developed methodologies, there remain many unknowns, uncertainties and challenges to overcome, both for the research community and for practitioners (IPCC, 2007; Klein and Nicholls, 1999). Most coastal areas lack continuous data collection or monitoring systems, which hinders the implementation of many of the available numerical models. For these regions, relying on the local experience of practitioners as well as historical events making up the concept of expert opinion is what the decision-making process generally corresponds to. Expert opinion - although a valuable tool - is subjective in nature when decision-making is considered. Keeping in mind that the wrong decision-making process could cause

In addition to the two main axes (long-shore and cross-shore), the coastal zone can be classified as micro-, meso- or macro-cell so as to define the spatial scale (Schwartz, 2005). Micro-cells include smaller geomorphic features such as ripples and small beach-face features which change over the period of a day or even hours. Meso-cells include geomorphic features such as beach profiles which change over a year or else months. Macrocells extend for kilometres and include large coastal geomorphic features.

It is this macro-scale that presents one of the grand challenges of coastal geomorphology. Relating the prediction of morphodynamic behaviour at a meso-scale is of particular relevance for the understanding and management of coastal responses to environmental change. However, the study of coastal processes has traditionally been restricted to small and intermediate scales (Thornton et al. 2000 cited in French & Burningham, 2009), making it but one of several influences on the coastal zone (Fig. 2). For decadal-scale studies, coastal researchers use the 'one line' shoreline change model, which remains popular, especially for the prediction of the wider impact of engineering schemes. However, system linkages are rarely linear and numerical morphodynamic models are required to understand the quantitative response of the coastline to environmental forcing. Thus, meso-scale morphodynamic modelling is likely to be one of the most active research fronts in coastal geomorphology for the near future (French & Burningham, 2009). Unfortunately, at present the application of a single model cannot address most large-scale problems. Multiple models are typically required to achieve a reasonable qualitative and quantitative prediction of morphological changes (Hommes et al. 2007 cited in French & Burningham, 2009).

While many mechanisms such as human intervention, the climate and the sea level affect the coastal geomorphology in addition to coastal processes (Fig. 2), coastal geomorphology has a significant influence on those mechanisms as well. Depending on the characteristics of certain coastal landforms, most of the human activities that take place in coastal areas relate to tourism, agriculture and transportation (Woodroffe, 2002). Moreover, many structures are built on shorelines so as to ensure the sustainability of these activities. This cycle of affecting one another is what makes the design and implementation of ICZM complicated. Different uses of the same coastal resources might generate serious problems, especially under the threat of global forces such as climate change (IPCC, 2007). Also, the application of geomorphologic methods to predict the status of landforms usually covers small spatial scales and short term temporal changes as compared with scales of climate change and ICZM. ICZM practice requires longer time scales and larger spatial scales, and it relies on prediction of shoreline movements and landforms. There are various tools\models presented in the literature for different landforms and mechanisms, and it is the main challenge for ICZM practitioners to integrate and discuss the results of different models in order to come up with one plan for the coastal domain. That is why integrated assessment models have recently gained importance in coastal zone management research (McFadden et al, 2007). The threat of climate change and the impact related to sea level change has seen focus on longer term predictions as well. However, longer term predictions come with higher uncertainties. Thus, at the moment coastal policymakers need to select appropriate scales and tools so as to ensure the sustainable development of coastal areas, taking account of the different spatial and temporal scales of many mechanisms, each possessing different levels of uncertainties (IPCC, 2007). On the other hand, international agencies continue to call for integrated assessments of all disciplines – not just coastal processes - while much of the research focuses solely on one aspect of the question.

In addition to the two main axes (long-shore and cross-shore), the coastal zone can be classified as micro-, meso- or macro-cell so as to define the spatial scale (Schwartz, 2005). Micro-cells include smaller geomorphic features such as ripples and small beach-face features which change over the period of a day or even hours. Meso-cells include geomorphic features such as beach profiles which change over a year or else months. Macro-

It is this macro-scale that presents one of the grand challenges of coastal geomorphology. Relating the prediction of morphodynamic behaviour at a meso-scale is of particular relevance for the understanding and management of coastal responses to environmental change. However, the study of coastal processes has traditionally been restricted to small and intermediate scales (Thornton et al. 2000 cited in French & Burningham, 2009), making it but one of several influences on the coastal zone (Fig. 2). For decadal-scale studies, coastal researchers use the 'one line' shoreline change model, which remains popular, especially for the prediction of the wider impact of engineering schemes. However, system linkages are rarely linear and numerical morphodynamic models are required to understand the quantitative response of the coastline to environmental forcing. Thus, meso-scale morphodynamic modelling is likely to be one of the most active research fronts in coastal geomorphology for the near future (French & Burningham, 2009). Unfortunately, at present the application of a single model cannot address most large-scale problems. Multiple models are typically required to achieve a reasonable qualitative and quantitative prediction of

cells extend for kilometres and include large coastal geomorphic features.

morphological changes (Hommes et al. 2007 cited in French & Burningham, 2009).

the research focuses solely on one aspect of the question.

While many mechanisms such as human intervention, the climate and the sea level affect the coastal geomorphology in addition to coastal processes (Fig. 2), coastal geomorphology has a significant influence on those mechanisms as well. Depending on the characteristics of certain coastal landforms, most of the human activities that take place in coastal areas relate to tourism, agriculture and transportation (Woodroffe, 2002). Moreover, many structures are built on shorelines so as to ensure the sustainability of these activities. This cycle of affecting one another is what makes the design and implementation of ICZM complicated. Different uses of the same coastal resources might generate serious problems, especially under the threat of global forces such as climate change (IPCC, 2007). Also, the application of geomorphologic methods to predict the status of landforms usually covers small spatial scales and short term temporal changes as compared with scales of climate change and ICZM. ICZM practice requires longer time scales and larger spatial scales, and it relies on prediction of shoreline movements and landforms. There are various tools\models presented in the literature for different landforms and mechanisms, and it is the main challenge for ICZM practitioners to integrate and discuss the results of different models in order to come up with one plan for the coastal domain. That is why integrated assessment models have recently gained importance in coastal zone management research (McFadden et al, 2007). The threat of climate change and the impact related to sea level change has seen focus on longer term predictions as well. However, longer term predictions come with higher uncertainties. Thus, at the moment coastal policymakers need to select appropriate scales and tools so as to ensure the sustainable development of coastal areas, taking account of the different spatial and temporal scales of many mechanisms, each possessing different levels of uncertainties (IPCC, 2007). On the other hand, international agencies continue to call for integrated assessments of all disciplines – not just coastal processes - while much of

Fig. 2. Mechanisms affecting coastal geomorphology.

Vulnerability assessments are one of the tools used by coastal researchers to highlight the problem areas\sectors\processes that need management, both at the present and in the future. There are different vulnerability assessment methods which use only numerical modelling or highly qualitative procedures answering a range of questions from different perspectives (IPCC, 2007). Despite the use of computers, geographical information systems, remote sensing technologies, data management and support systems and developed methodologies, there remain many unknowns, uncertainties and challenges to overcome, both for the research community and for practitioners (IPCC, 2007; Klein and Nicholls, 1999). Most coastal areas lack continuous data collection or monitoring systems, which hinders the implementation of many of the available numerical models. For these regions, relying on the local experience of practitioners as well as historical events making up the concept of expert opinion is what the decision-making process generally corresponds to. Expert opinion - although a valuable tool - is subjective in nature when decision-making is considered. Keeping in mind that the wrong decision-making process could cause

Spatial and Time Balancing Act:

2010).

in representing the mechanism of coastal erosion (Table 1).

6. Tidal Range

mentioned are related to a long shore spatial scale.

Coastal Geomorphology in View of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) 147

Of the impacts assessed by the FCVAM model, coastal erosion is the one that both influences and is influenced by geomorphologic processes the most. The FCVAM model uses 6 parameters for physical characteristics and 5 parameters for anthropogenic activities

Coastal Erosion 1. Rate of Sea Level Rise 1. Reduction of Sediment Supply

**Physical Parameters Human Influence Parameters** 

4. Significant Wave Height 4. Natural Protection Degradation 5. Sediment Budget 5. Coastal Protection Structures

2. Geomorphology 2. River Flow Regulation 3. Coastal Slope 3. Engineered Frontage

Table 1. Parameters of FCVAM model representing the coastal erosion mechanism (Ozyurt,

The physical parameters for erosion include and integrate the impact of climate change through sea level rise, geomorphology through landforms, and coastal processes through waves, the sediment budget and tidal range. Waves and tides are used to classify the shoreline as a high\low energy shoreline so as to determine whether or not coastal geomorphologic processes are governed by natural drivers. The sediment budget parameter - originating from the historical evolution of the shoreline - shows whether geomorphologic processes are dominant along the coastal area. The type of landforms points out the overall susceptibility of the shoreline to geomorphologic processes. All of the parameters

The human influence parameters - also given in Table 1 - require assessments of their own which need to derive information from geomorphology studies as well. Due to activities outside the coastal zone, natural ecosystems (particularly within the catchments draining to the coast) have been fragmented and the downstream flow of water, sediment and nutrients has been disrupted (Nilsson et al. 2005). Land-use change - particularly deforestation - and hydrological modifications have had downstream impacts in addition to localised development on the coast. As stated by Jiongxhin (2004) erosion in the catchment has increased the river sediment load; for example, suspended loads in the Huanghe (Yellow) River have increased 2 to 10 times over the past 2000 years. In contrast, damming and channelisation have significantly reduced the supply of sediments to the coast on other rivers through retention of sediment in dams. Indeed, this latter effect will likely dominate the 21st century. On the other hand, land use change along the shoreline (long shore scale) also changed the amount of sediment supply available to coastal processes. Excavation of the coastal zone, sand mining and urbanisation contribute to the change in the sediment budget because of human use of the coast. Human activities controlling the flow rate of

rivers also have a significant impact on the supply of sediment to coastal areas.

Two parameters (the reduction of sediment supply and river flow regulation) are inserted into the FCVAM model in order to reflect these mechanical processes and the spatial scales of these mechanisms. The reduction of sediment supply is defined as the ratio of

irreversible consequences for coastal areas, tools that could integrate expert opinion in an objective way with the available data and generic models and tools would mark an important step for the management of coastal areas where the monitoring and assessment of the implementation of developed plans could be scientifically verified. One such vulnerability assessment model was developed by Ozyurt (2007) and then upgraded in 2010 as a tool using fuzzy expert systems to integrate physical characteristics with human activities on both cross-shore and long-shore spatial extents for coastal areas (Ozyurt, 2010).
