**3.1 Methodology**

Based on the methodology applied in previous studies, for the traditional shirt it was decided to evaluate the state of the material, its physical characteristics, the

**195**

**Figure 7.**

*Considerations Regarding the Research for the Conservation of Heritage Textiles in Romania*

degree of mechanical destruction and the possible influence of atmospheric factors. The samples collected from the textile material were examined using the scanning electron microscope (SEM), to determine the current state of the fibers. The morphology of the fiber system was determined in order to identify visible damage under the microscope and verify the occurrence of dust on the tested impurities. An attempt was made to determine the fungi and other microorganisms potentially occurring on the tested material [60, 61]. The test samples were presented in successively increased magnifications, from 178× to 2.31K× at EHT 20.00 kV. Using the FEI Quanta 200 microscope, a comparative examination was performed between a white and a black thread from the shirt's composition, in order to determine any differences in terms of material or degree of preservation. The whiteness index was determined with the Datacolor Spectrophotometer with a D65/10 lamp, by measuring the X, Y and Z chromatic components from three areas (**Figure 7**) with different bleaching levels. To identify the microorganisms that are currently colonizing the material, Dichloran culture medium 18% glycerol agar with chloramphenicol (DG 18) was used; the diluent used being peptonated water. Further, petri plates were seeded, and the samples were incubated under aerobic conditions, at 25 ± 1°C, for 5–7 days. Macroscopic and microscopic examination of fungal colonies [62, 63] highlighted the following types of fungi: *Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp., Alternaria spp. and Candida spp*. After dishes incubation, fungal and bacterial colonies were counted. Colony forming units per cubic meter (CFU ∙ m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup>

) were

(bt)−1, (1)

of indoor air, a = number of colonies per Petri

), t = exposure time (min). Determination of the number

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91393*

determined, following the Omeliansky's equation [64, 65]:

where N = microbial CFU ∙ m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup>

at both 22°C and 37°C, NTF/ml or /g = 2.1 × 103

*The three points in which the whiteness index was measured.*

dish, b = dish surface (cm2

**3.2 Results and discussions**

N = 5a × 10<sup>4</sup>

of fungi (NTF) per gram of product ufc/g showed NTG/ml or /g = greater than 300

The first pair of images at 178× magnification (**Figure 8**) and 270× (**Figure 9**) allowed the determination of the tested fiber's condition, as good. The first image

.

**Figure 6.** *The geographical location of the area of origin of the traditional women's shirt "ie".*

*Considerations Regarding the Research for the Conservation of Heritage Textiles in Romania DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91393*

degree of mechanical destruction and the possible influence of atmospheric factors. The samples collected from the textile material were examined using the scanning electron microscope (SEM), to determine the current state of the fibers. The morphology of the fiber system was determined in order to identify visible damage under the microscope and verify the occurrence of dust on the tested impurities. An attempt was made to determine the fungi and other microorganisms potentially occurring on the tested material [60, 61]. The test samples were presented in successively increased magnifications, from 178× to 2.31K× at EHT 20.00 kV. Using the FEI Quanta 200 microscope, a comparative examination was performed between a white and a black thread from the shirt's composition, in order to determine any differences in terms of material or degree of preservation. The whiteness index was determined with the Datacolor Spectrophotometer with a D65/10 lamp, by measuring the X, Y and Z chromatic components from three areas (**Figure 7**) with different bleaching levels.

To identify the microorganisms that are currently colonizing the material, Dichloran culture medium 18% glycerol agar with chloramphenicol (DG 18) was used; the diluent used being peptonated water. Further, petri plates were seeded, and the samples were incubated under aerobic conditions, at 25 ± 1°C, for 5–7 days. Macroscopic and microscopic examination of fungal colonies [62, 63] highlighted the following types of fungi: *Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp., Alternaria spp. and Candida spp*. After dishes incubation, fungal and bacterial colonies were counted. Colony forming units per cubic meter (CFU ∙ m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup> ) were determined, following the Omeliansky's equation [64, 65]:

$$\mathbf{N} = \mathbf{\tilde{a}} \times \mathbf{10}^4 \text{ (bt)}^{-1},\tag{1}$$

where N = microbial CFU ∙ m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup> of indoor air, a = number of colonies per Petri dish, b = dish surface (cm2 ), t = exposure time (min). Determination of the number of fungi (NTF) per gram of product ufc/g showed NTG/ml or /g = greater than 300 at both 22°C and 37°C, NTF/ml or /g = 2.1 × 103 .

#### **3.2 Results and discussions**

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

**3. A new case study**

**3.1 Methodology**

*Aspergillus* [49]. These microorganisms affect human health and integrity of textile fibers; the second case being detected after the SEM analysis of the samples of old maps with textile support. These revealed that the fibers are strongly damaged due to the presence of fungi and dust. Among the microorganisms identified on the

In order to diversify the study objects, a new research on a textile material with historical implications was conducted. It is about a traditional women's shirt called "ie" (**Figure 6**), specific to Alba County, Romania. The value of this fabric lies in its very old age (over 100 years), due to the fact that it is handmade from natural cotton fibers, but also due to the special significance it has in the life of local communities. Like the other collections of textiles presented above, which are stored in buildings with different environmental conditions, the present study comes to complete the way historical textiles are preserved in Romania. The traditional shirt, being part of a private collection, to which only the owner has access, its preservation conditions are different from all the other samples. It is stored in household microclimate, which commonly consists of an average temperature in the range of 20–24°C (during wintertime) and 23–26°C (during summertime). Also, the humidity level range between 30 and 60% [59]. Moreover, due to the fact that the piece still serves the purpose for which it was achieved, being occasionally worn, it is necessary to determine the bilateral implications of this action; both on the degree

Based on the methodology applied in previous studies, for the traditional shirt it was decided to evaluate the state of the material, its physical characteristics, the

maps, there are different subspecies of *Penicillium* and *Fusarium* [50].

of conservation of the shirt and on the health of the wearer.

*The geographical location of the area of origin of the traditional women's shirt "ie".*

**194**

**Figure 6.**

The first pair of images at 178× magnification (**Figure 8**) and 270× (**Figure 9**) allowed the determination of the tested fiber's condition, as good. The first image

**Figure 7.** *The three points in which the whiteness index was measured.*

clearly shows the weave of threads constituting the basic fiber of the material of the costume under examination. Its good condition may indicate that the folk costume ("ie") is not used very often (within the scope of the test sample), as well as it is kept in good storage conditions. This is confirmed by another image (**Figure 9**), which shows only slight mechanical damage to the fibers. The entire fiber bundle tested is in good condition. However, even at this low magnification, enhanced by image enlargement using computer tools, we can see atmospheric dust covering the fibers.

Successive image magnifications, 818× (**Figure 10**) and 877× (**Figure 11**) confirm previous observation. At this magnification, dust and dirt are clearly visible on individual fibers. Also, it can be observed in **Figure 10**, the structure of a single fiber of natural origin. In the case of natural fibers, with a lose arrangement, the rough, lamellar surface structure means that they are able to transport significant amounts of material, including microbial origin [66]. Computer enlargement of the image of the same fragment of the sample, showing the tested fibers, allows to detect the presence of dust particles and microbiological contamination.

The images of the next sample at 1.31× magnification (**Figure 12**) with clear contamination and at 2.31× magnification with single fiber (**Figure 13**) confirm this observation. The first of them clearly shows mechanical impurities, although the individual fiber in the next image is free of impurities.

Using a datacolor instrument, the whiteness indices of the shirt was measured on three portions, from the portion where the textile is clean to the portions where yellow spots are observed (**Figure 7**). Berger and CIE whiteness indices are presented in **Table 2**. When comparing to literature, the indices for the traditional shirt are significantly lower [67, 68]. This is a proof of the shirt age, even if it has been kept in better conditions. Due to the variations of humidity and temperature, over time the cotton fibers have oxidative reactions, in fact an aging of the cellulose fibers of cotton occurs, thus causing the yellowing of the material.

The SEM images (**Figure 14**) resulting from the analyzes on the two different color yarns (black and white) collected from the shirt, confirm the similarities regarding the cellulose nature of the fibers, both being made of cotton [69]. At the same time, there are no noticeable differences in the state of conservation between the white and black fibers (from the manually embroidered model), both of which are in very good state of conservation.

**197**

**Figure 11.**

**Figure 9.**

**Figure 10.**

*Considerations Regarding the Research for the Conservation of Heritage Textiles in Romania*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91393*

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 270×.*

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 818×.*

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 877×.*

**Figure 8.** *SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 178×.*

*Considerations Regarding the Research for the Conservation of Heritage Textiles in Romania DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91393*

**Figure 9.** *SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 270×.*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

fibers.

clearly shows the weave of threads constituting the basic fiber of the material of the costume under examination. Its good condition may indicate that the folk costume ("ie") is not used very often (within the scope of the test sample), as well as it is kept in good storage conditions. This is confirmed by another image (**Figure 9**), which shows only slight mechanical damage to the fibers. The entire fiber bundle tested is in good condition. However, even at this low magnification, enhanced by image enlargement using computer tools, we can see atmospheric dust covering the

Successive image magnifications, 818× (**Figure 10**) and 877× (**Figure 11**) confirm previous observation. At this magnification, dust and dirt are clearly visible on individual fibers. Also, it can be observed in **Figure 10**, the structure of a single fiber of natural origin. In the case of natural fibers, with a lose arrangement, the rough, lamellar surface structure means that they are able to transport significant amounts of material, including microbial origin [66]. Computer enlargement of the image of the same fragment of the sample, showing the tested fibers, allows to

The images of the next sample at 1.31× magnification (**Figure 12**) with clear contamination and at 2.31× magnification with single fiber (**Figure 13**) confirm this observation. The first of them clearly shows mechanical impurities, although the

Using a datacolor instrument, the whiteness indices of the shirt was measured

The SEM images (**Figure 14**) resulting from the analyzes on the two different color yarns (black and white) collected from the shirt, confirm the similarities regarding the cellulose nature of the fibers, both being made of cotton [69]. At the same time, there are no noticeable differences in the state of conservation between the white and black fibers (from the manually embroidered model), both of which

on three portions, from the portion where the textile is clean to the portions where yellow spots are observed (**Figure 7**). Berger and CIE whiteness indices are presented in **Table 2**. When comparing to literature, the indices for the traditional shirt are significantly lower [67, 68]. This is a proof of the shirt age, even if it has been kept in better conditions. Due to the variations of humidity and temperature, over time the cotton fibers have oxidative reactions, in fact an aging of the cellulose

fibers of cotton occurs, thus causing the yellowing of the material.

detect the presence of dust particles and microbiological contamination.

individual fiber in the next image is free of impurities.

are in very good state of conservation.

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 178×.*

**196**

**Figure 8.**

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 818×.*

**Figure 11.** *SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 877×.*

**Figure 12.** *SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 1.31×.*

#### **Figure 13.**

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 2.31×.*

According to the literature on the subject [66, 70, 71] and the conducted research, it can be stated that the most common fungi found on the tested material (folk costume) and cellulose textiles (cotton, linen) include different species of *Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Botrytis, Chaetomium*, etc. [70].


**199**

**Figure 14.**

*Considerations Regarding the Research for the Conservation of Heritage Textiles in Romania*

The conducted tests of the described fiber samples confirmed the presence of *Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp. Alternaria spp.* and *Candida spp*. The penultimate enlargement of the tested fabric (**Figure 10**) clearly shows microbiological contamination and the process of fiber development and possible

*SEM images of the two white and black wires from the traditional shirt: (1) SEM image of the black wire at 3000× magnification; (2) SEM image of the black wire at 6000× magnification; (3) SEM image of the white* 

*wire at 3000× magnification; (4) SEM image of the white wire at 6000× magnification.*

People are frequently exposed to spores and vegetative forms of *Aspergillus niger*, present on various textile objects. *Aspergillus niger* can cause allergic symptoms and produce certain mycotoxins that can especially affect people with a weak immune system, respiratory, renal, immune system or hearing aids; they can also cause local lesions in both the internal and external ears, postoperative cavities, etc. [72]. *Aspergillus* and *Candida* cause deaths due to invasive infections. The fungal species in the *Candida* family are the most common etiologic fungal agent of invasive infections that can endanger life in patients: immunocompromised; they have undergone invasive clinical procedures or major trauma and require longterm hospital care [73]. *Cladosporium spp.* can cause allergic reactions in humans, which sometimes results in asthma. Rarely, it can cause opportunistic infections, mainly located in the skin and subcutaneous cellular tissue [74]. Exposure to fungi of the *Alternaria* has been recognized as a risk factor for the development, persistence and severity of asthma and allergic respiratory diseases. They can cause rhinosinusitis, onychomycosis, and skin and subcutaneous infections, generally

colonization by *Aspergillus* and *Penicillium.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91393*

**Table 2.**

*The whiteness index of the traditional shirt measured in three different portions.*

*Considerations Regarding the Research for the Conservation of Heritage Textiles in Romania DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91393*

#### **Figure 14.**

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

According to the literature on the subject [66, 70, 71] and the conducted research, it can be stated that the most common fungi found on the tested material (folk costume) and cellulose textiles (cotton, linen) include different species of

**(Berger)**

1 65.64 68.92 67.68 46.07 43.86 −3.16 Ref. 2 63.15 66.73 62.74 36.24 30.44 −3.57 Darker

3 63.51 66.69 64.5 41.18 37.34 −3.48 Darker

**W (CIE)** **T Obs.**

More saturated More green

More saturated More green

*Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Botrytis, Chaetomium*, etc. [70].

*The whiteness index of the traditional shirt measured in three different portions.*

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 2.31×.*

*SEM image of the fibers from traditional shirt at magnification 1.31×.*

**Portion X Y Z W** 

**198**

**Table 2.**

**Figure 13.**

**Figure 12.**

*SEM images of the two white and black wires from the traditional shirt: (1) SEM image of the black wire at 3000× magnification; (2) SEM image of the black wire at 6000× magnification; (3) SEM image of the white wire at 3000× magnification; (4) SEM image of the white wire at 6000× magnification.*

The conducted tests of the described fiber samples confirmed the presence of *Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp. Alternaria spp.* and *Candida spp*. The penultimate enlargement of the tested fabric (**Figure 10**) clearly shows microbiological contamination and the process of fiber development and possible colonization by *Aspergillus* and *Penicillium.*

People are frequently exposed to spores and vegetative forms of *Aspergillus niger*, present on various textile objects. *Aspergillus niger* can cause allergic symptoms and produce certain mycotoxins that can especially affect people with a weak immune system, respiratory, renal, immune system or hearing aids; they can also cause local lesions in both the internal and external ears, postoperative cavities, etc. [72].

*Aspergillus* and *Candida* cause deaths due to invasive infections. The fungal species in the *Candida* family are the most common etiologic fungal agent of invasive infections that can endanger life in patients: immunocompromised; they have undergone invasive clinical procedures or major trauma and require longterm hospital care [73]. *Cladosporium spp.* can cause allergic reactions in humans, which sometimes results in asthma. Rarely, it can cause opportunistic infections, mainly located in the skin and subcutaneous cellular tissue [74]. Exposure to fungi of the *Alternaria* has been recognized as a risk factor for the development, persistence and severity of asthma and allergic respiratory diseases. They can cause rhinosinusitis, onychomycosis, and skin and subcutaneous infections, generally

in immunocompromised patients. Infections with *Penicillium* can be mainly by inhalation and sometimes by ingestion. Pathologies that are the result of infection with *Penicillium spp*. are generally referred to as penicilliosis. Prolonged exposure to fungi from the *Penicillium* family which typically produce mycotoxins ochratoxin A and citrinin, has been reported in combination with opportunistic infections such as keratitis, otomycosis and urinary tract infections [75, 76].
