**2. Fashion and sustainability**

Decisions of consumption have obtained a significant role in today's world—the choice of what you eat, where you go, what you wear and so on has become decisive factors of showing who you are and what you want to be, of displaying one's social identity. When one talks about consumer behavior in the textile sector, fashion is the key concept. Fashion presents the markers for social differentiation, mobility and identity, and allows a person to present one's identity—moreover, this dynamism and speed of fashion allow people to change their conceived identity [4–6].

Certain historical, social and cultural changes can be said to have shaped contemporary fashion. The first big leap was the Industrial Revolution—the possibility of producing *en masse* made it possible for the consumers to pick their desired products from a much wider range at lower prices, which, in turn, meant that a wider portion of the society could afford to have the pleasure of purchasing the desired products. In other words, "…fashion, which had been the epitome of luxury, was democratized and consumption behavior began to change" [7]. Industrialization also triggered changes in the economic structures: Autarky lost ground and urbanization has become a widespread phenomenon. The fact that an increasing number of people started to move into cities enhanced the commercial activities. Starting with the 1900s, new types of trade companies and retail shops emerged in the cities. Consumption, which was mainly a subject of certain periodical trade events, has become a fundamental part of the daily routine of the people. The new shops enabled people to buy clothes any given day. This new dynamism of fashion

**41**

*Textile Wastes: Status and Perspectives*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92234*

conceive as the "modern fashion business" [12].

stock turnaround for the companies [13].

as in eco-fashion consumption [15–17].

framework [18, 19].

provided retailers and marketers with new commercial opportunities, as "being

Although the modern concept of "consumer culture" goes as far back as three centuries, the last few decades have witnessed unprecedented growth of purchasing and disposal of textile goods. The emergence of fashion as a defining force in consumer behavior resulted in overconsumption. The logic of fashion constantly pushes forward the need for change, which results in generating more and more requests to supply newer, fresher and more contemporary goods [9, 10]. Until the 1990s, the general tendency of fashion retailers was to release two main collections—spring/summer and autumn/winter—each year; however, during the 1990s, drastic changes occurred: The so-called era of "super cheap and super fast" arrived [11]. The increasing ability to outsource production to low-cost regions of a globalized world and thus to produce much cheaper clothes, combined with the inherent dynamism of fashion, paved the way for the emergence of what we nowadays

This fundamental role of dynamism inevitably positioned time as a crucial factor for the competitiveness of fashion companies. Consumers are conditioned to expect newness; thus, brand new products need to arrive at the stores with short time intervals constantly. This objective is accompanied by limited ranges and rapid

The dominance of fast fashion and just-in-time production in the textile industry has led to more frequent seasons and minicollections in-between seasons, which has led to the arrival of new cheap items to the stores every week, even, in some cases, every day. It is a chain reaction: increase in the creation of new fashion trends, desires to experience the new spurring out of control, consumers buying more and more, and eventually overconsumption. This new concept of seasonal new collection brings about more incentives of buying for the consumer and, thus, increases the rate of textile consumption. However, the fashion industry not only has an impact on people but also has a big impact on the environment [10, 14]. The concerns about the environment are rapidly growing in today's world and are shared by the fashion firms and the consumers. Textile production is an important source of human-made adverse impact on the environment, as the sector uses huge amounts of water, pesticides and chemicals. Attempts to establish guidelines for sustainability in the production phase, such as ISO 14000, are a reflection of this fact, and this aspect is quite relevant for fashion firms. On the other hand, the consumers are getting more and more conscious about the social and environmental problems, which have a direct effect on the consumption choices of the consumers,

Even though this burning issue is gaining more importance in all sectors, it can be said that textile lags behind other sectors, for example the industrial design, in terms of research and development about modes of production that would be more efficient for the conservation of the environment or ways to get the consumers more engaged in topics of sustainability. The industry needs more innovation in the aspects of design, manufacture, consumption and business within a sustainable

Sustainability is indeed a burning issue, and the following data demonstrate how important it is for the world to achieve greater success in the textile sector. Textile production, a sector that goes back to ancient times and has always maintained its pivotal role in human life, still has a paramount place in industry if one takes a look at the global output and employment numbers [20]. According to the Zion Market Research's report, the textile market was approximately valued at USD 858 billion in 2018 globally and is estimated to generate around USD 1207 billion by the year 2025, at a CAGR of around 5% between 2019 and 2025 [21]. The global garment and

fashionable" became an important aspect of consumer behavior [7, 8].

### *Textile Wastes: Status and Perspectives DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92234*

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

and again through closed loops.

**2. Fashion and sustainability**

ideally eliminated [2].

that results from them are generally not considered.

by incineration [2].

systems" [3].

the consumer become waste and are generally disposed of ending up in landfills or

An alternative to this traditional production model is what is called a "circular economy": "A circular economy is based on the principles of designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural

In contrast to the negative aspects of the linear economic approach, the circular economy is seen as a sustainable development model for the future and increasingly stands out as an approach that is becoming widespread in the world. The circular economy is a systems model in which every part of a product is considered as a valuable resource that should be handled with care and resources are circulated again

The basis of the circular economy model is to expand the life-span of a product via repair, reuse, remanufacturing and recycling, so that resources are used more efficiently and the need for new products and virgin raw material is reduced or

In order to ensure sustainability and reduce environmental impacts in the textile and apparel sector, utilizing a circular economy model is of utmost importance. Recycling of textile waste is a requirement for the implementation of a circular model. This study presents a general evaluation of recycling of textile wastes, in terms of ensuring sustainability and minimizing environmental impacts.

Decisions of consumption have obtained a significant role in today's world—the choice of what you eat, where you go, what you wear and so on has become decisive factors of showing who you are and what you want to be, of displaying one's social identity. When one talks about consumer behavior in the textile sector, fashion is the key concept. Fashion presents the markers for social differentiation, mobility and identity, and allows a person to present one's identity—moreover, this dynamism and speed of fashion allow people to change their conceived identity [4–6]. Certain historical, social and cultural changes can be said to have shaped contemporary fashion. The first big leap was the Industrial Revolution—the possibility of producing *en masse* made it possible for the consumers to pick their desired products from a much wider range at lower prices, which, in turn, meant that a wider portion of the society could afford to have the pleasure of purchasing the desired products. In other words, "…fashion, which had been the epitome of luxury, was democratized and consumption behavior began to change" [7]. Industrialization also triggered changes in the economic structures: Autarky lost ground and urbanization has become a widespread phenomenon. The fact that an increasing number of people started to move into cities enhanced the commercial activities. Starting with the 1900s, new types of trade companies and retail shops emerged in the cities. Consumption, which was mainly a subject of certain periodical trade events, has become a fundamental part of the daily routine of the people. The new shops enabled people to buy clothes any given day. This new dynamism of fashion

required for production. It seems that the limited resources available to us in the world will not provide the conditions for the current dominant economic model to go on as today. The actual perception of raw materials is not sustainable. Moreover, linear economy-oriented production and business models become a burden for the environment—the environmental aspect, the damages they cause and the waste

The basis of the linear economy approach is the consumption of the raw material

**40**

provided retailers and marketers with new commercial opportunities, as "being fashionable" became an important aspect of consumer behavior [7, 8].

Although the modern concept of "consumer culture" goes as far back as three centuries, the last few decades have witnessed unprecedented growth of purchasing and disposal of textile goods. The emergence of fashion as a defining force in consumer behavior resulted in overconsumption. The logic of fashion constantly pushes forward the need for change, which results in generating more and more requests to supply newer, fresher and more contemporary goods [9, 10]. Until the 1990s, the general tendency of fashion retailers was to release two main collections—spring/summer and autumn/winter—each year; however, during the 1990s, drastic changes occurred: The so-called era of "super cheap and super fast" arrived [11]. The increasing ability to outsource production to low-cost regions of a globalized world and thus to produce much cheaper clothes, combined with the inherent dynamism of fashion, paved the way for the emergence of what we nowadays conceive as the "modern fashion business" [12].

This fundamental role of dynamism inevitably positioned time as a crucial factor for the competitiveness of fashion companies. Consumers are conditioned to expect newness; thus, brand new products need to arrive at the stores with short time intervals constantly. This objective is accompanied by limited ranges and rapid stock turnaround for the companies [13].

The dominance of fast fashion and just-in-time production in the textile industry has led to more frequent seasons and minicollections in-between seasons, which has led to the arrival of new cheap items to the stores every week, even, in some cases, every day. It is a chain reaction: increase in the creation of new fashion trends, desires to experience the new spurring out of control, consumers buying more and more, and eventually overconsumption. This new concept of seasonal new collection brings about more incentives of buying for the consumer and, thus, increases the rate of textile consumption. However, the fashion industry not only has an impact on people but also has a big impact on the environment [10, 14].

The concerns about the environment are rapidly growing in today's world and are shared by the fashion firms and the consumers. Textile production is an important source of human-made adverse impact on the environment, as the sector uses huge amounts of water, pesticides and chemicals. Attempts to establish guidelines for sustainability in the production phase, such as ISO 14000, are a reflection of this fact, and this aspect is quite relevant for fashion firms. On the other hand, the consumers are getting more and more conscious about the social and environmental problems, which have a direct effect on the consumption choices of the consumers, as in eco-fashion consumption [15–17].

Even though this burning issue is gaining more importance in all sectors, it can be said that textile lags behind other sectors, for example the industrial design, in terms of research and development about modes of production that would be more efficient for the conservation of the environment or ways to get the consumers more engaged in topics of sustainability. The industry needs more innovation in the aspects of design, manufacture, consumption and business within a sustainable framework [18, 19].

Sustainability is indeed a burning issue, and the following data demonstrate how important it is for the world to achieve greater success in the textile sector. Textile production, a sector that goes back to ancient times and has always maintained its pivotal role in human life, still has a paramount place in industry if one takes a look at the global output and employment numbers [20]. According to the Zion Market Research's report, the textile market was approximately valued at USD 858 billion in 2018 globally and is estimated to generate around USD 1207 billion by the year 2025, at a CAGR of around 5% between 2019 and 2025 [21]. The global garment and textile industries employ 60 million to 75 million people worldwide [22]. The total volume of the production of the sector around the world is expected to exceed 99 million tons annually. These numbers are evidence to the importance of the applications of the industry for environment [23].

Clothing is an essential human need, and the textile and clothing industry delivers goods to satisfy this basic necessity. But this vital sector presents serious social and ecological problems in many instances of the supply chain—from fiber production, spinning, fabric production, dyeing and finishing, to clothing production [24, 25]. However, the increasing price pressure over fashion companies in the last decades does not help the companies in developing more sustainable production models. The price pressure has led many textile companies to outsource their production, which caused the bulk of the European and US clothing production shift to developing economies in Asia. The part of the value creation chain that remains in the Western countries is mostly limited to value-added services such as design and overall brand management. This production shift, with the relocation of a big part of the value chain in lower labor cost countries, presents a new challenge for sustainability, as the surveillance and control over labor and ecological practices in the production sites of the supply chain have become much more complicated [25, 26].

Sustainability, a word more frequently used every day nowadays, may sound very familiar, but it is difficult to define, understand and adopt in industrial practices. An apt definition for the term sustainable development, coined by Brundtland (formerly the World Commission on Environment and Development), is as follows: "The development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" [27]. Below is a list of the main obstacles for an environmentally sustainable textile and apparel sector:

## **2.1 Consumption of water**

Studies show that, in terms of consumption and pollution of clean water, textile and related industries are only surpassed by agriculture [28]. The sheer amount of water used during textile production, especially wet processing, tells a lot: to process a kilogram of fabric, 80 to 150 liters of water is used, along with other chemicals [29]. About 4% of global freshwater withdrawal, which corresponds to 93 billion cubic meters of water, is utilized annually by the textile sector, if cotton farming is included. Clothing is responsible for more than 60% of this amount [1].

#### **2.2 Global warming**

The average temperature on Earth is constantly increasing, but especially since the Industrial Revolution, the rate at which the average temperature on Earth has been rising is too rapid—the phenomenon known as global warming. Various estimates put the rise at 0.6–0.8°C, which corresponds to a rise 10 times faster than the calculated normal. This man-made global warming is due to the amount of greenhouse gases released, such as carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbon, of the use of fossil fuels as well as of other developments [30].

Textile and apparel production has a major role in this global phenomenon. In 2015, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from textile production were responsible for 1.2 billion tons of CO2 equivalent of greenhouse gas (GHG). This figure exceeds the emissions that result from all international flights and maritime shipping combined—two fundamental means of transportation [1]. Transferring final products produced in developing countries to the shops in the developed ones necessitates

**43**

*Textile Wastes: Status and Perspectives*

tion of nonrenewable fuel [31].

**2.3 Environmental pollution**

tons of chemicals globally [1].

in 2015 [1].

hours [30].

(VOCs) [31].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92234*

long-distance maritime transportation, which further increases the total consump-

Given that the actual trends of the sector do not alter, by 2050, 26% of the carbon budget and 300 million tons of crude oil will be consumed by the textile industry—a significant change compared with 2% and 98 million tons, respectively,

The textile industry utilizes much energy with little efficiency. The chemical processing leg of the production mostly utilizes thermal energy to heat water and dry fabrics, while spinning and weaving legs of the production mostly utilize electrical power [32, 33]. The consumption of electricity to produce 60 billion kilograms of fabrics worldwide per year is calculated to be nearly 1 trillion kilowatt

Textile manufacture is also a source of NOx and SOx emissions, solvent release during drying of coatings or cleaning operations and volatile organic compounds

About a quarter of chemicals produced globally are used in the textile industry [34]. Numerous chemicals are used for textile production, mainly in the wet processing. Of these nearly 2000 different chemicals, many have adverse impacts on health. Some chemicals evaporate, while others are dissolved in treatment water which ultimately goes back to the environment—and some chemicals remain in the product [31]. Cotton clothing, which, after all, is regarded as particularly natural and healthy, calls for cotton farming, which currently needs 0.2 million tons of pesticides and 8 million tons of fertilizer globally. Although cotton cultivation accounts for only 2.5% of worldwide agricultural land, it is responsible for 16% of global pesticide utilization. Furthermore, the physical health of cotton farmers gets negatively affected from the chemicals used for cultivating cotton, and cases of acute poisoning from pesticides among cotton farmers are commonplace. About 4% of all nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers used around the world go to cotton production, and these chemicals are a main source of clean water pollution. If merged into the rivers, these chemicals can lead to algal blooms, which starve the river of oxygen. Producing cellulose-based fibers also necessitates large amounts of chemicals and some of the chemicals used are sources of concern. However, the agricultural part of textile production is not solely responsible for the chemical use of the industry. Producing the fibers requires using chemicals too, for example for dyes or finishing treatments. This part of the production is estimated to use approximately 43 million

The microplastics contaminating the oceans are attracting more and more attention from concerned scientists, even though we still do not fully understand its long-term impacts. Microfibers discharged from textiles during washing processes add to the increasing plastic pollution in the oceans [1]. George Leonard, Chief Scientist for The Ocean Conservancy, estimates that the amount of microfibers on

The waste generated by producing and consuming textiles is another major concern. Textile consumption around the world is calculated to be over 100 million tons [23]. However, the rate of recycling is rather low: Barely 13% of the total material input is in some way recycled after usage. Of this recycled 13%, a minuscule part is used to produce new clothing—less than 1%. The rest is recycled into other, lowervalue items such as insulation material, wiping cloths or mattress stuffing [1]. Additionally, odor problems and noise pollution are also negative effects of the textile industry on the environment. Odor pollution is an indicator of

seafloor could have reached to the sheer figure of 1.4 million trillion [35].

#### *Textile Wastes: Status and Perspectives DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92234*

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

complicated [25, 26].

**2.1 Consumption of water**

amount [1].

**2.2 Global warming**

tions of the industry for environment [23].

textile industries employ 60 million to 75 million people worldwide [22]. The total volume of the production of the sector around the world is expected to exceed 99 million tons annually. These numbers are evidence to the importance of the applica-

Clothing is an essential human need, and the textile and clothing industry delivers goods to satisfy this basic necessity. But this vital sector presents serious social and ecological problems in many instances of the supply chain—from fiber production, spinning, fabric production, dyeing and finishing, to clothing production [24, 25]. However, the increasing price pressure over fashion companies in the last decades does not help the companies in developing more sustainable production models. The price pressure has led many textile companies to outsource their production, which caused the bulk of the European and US clothing production shift to developing economies in Asia. The part of the value creation chain that remains in the Western countries is mostly limited to value-added services such as design and overall brand management. This production shift, with the relocation of a big part of the value chain in lower labor cost countries, presents a new challenge for sustainability, as the surveillance and control over labor and ecological practices in the production sites of the supply chain have become much more

Sustainability, a word more frequently used every day nowadays, may sound very familiar, but it is difficult to define, understand and adopt in industrial practices. An apt definition for the term sustainable development, coined by Brundtland (formerly the World Commission on Environment and Development), is as follows: "The development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" [27]. Below is a list of the main obstacles for an environmentally sustainable textile and apparel sector:

Studies show that, in terms of consumption and pollution of clean water, textile and related industries are only surpassed by agriculture [28]. The sheer amount of water used during textile production, especially wet processing, tells a lot: to process a kilogram of fabric, 80 to 150 liters of water is used, along with other chemicals [29]. About 4% of global freshwater withdrawal, which corresponds to 93 billion cubic meters of water, is utilized annually by the textile sector, if cotton farming is included. Clothing is responsible for more than 60% of this

The average temperature on Earth is constantly increasing, but especially since the Industrial Revolution, the rate at which the average temperature on Earth has been rising is too rapid—the phenomenon known as global warming. Various estimates put the rise at 0.6–0.8°C, which corresponds to a rise 10 times faster than the calculated normal. This man-made global warming is due to the amount of greenhouse gases released, such as carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbon, of the

Textile and apparel production has a major role in this global phenomenon. In 2015, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from textile production were responsible for 1.2 billion tons of CO2 equivalent of greenhouse gas (GHG). This figure exceeds the emissions that result from all international flights and maritime shipping combined—two fundamental means of transportation [1]. Transferring final products produced in developing countries to the shops in the developed ones necessitates

use of fossil fuels as well as of other developments [30].

**42**

long-distance maritime transportation, which further increases the total consumption of nonrenewable fuel [31].

Given that the actual trends of the sector do not alter, by 2050, 26% of the carbon budget and 300 million tons of crude oil will be consumed by the textile industry—a significant change compared with 2% and 98 million tons, respectively, in 2015 [1].

The textile industry utilizes much energy with little efficiency. The chemical processing leg of the production mostly utilizes thermal energy to heat water and dry fabrics, while spinning and weaving legs of the production mostly utilize electrical power [32, 33]. The consumption of electricity to produce 60 billion kilograms of fabrics worldwide per year is calculated to be nearly 1 trillion kilowatt hours [30].

Textile manufacture is also a source of NOx and SOx emissions, solvent release during drying of coatings or cleaning operations and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [31].
