**5. Case of study**

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

from grapes [94].

leather wastes [102–124].

as water and pigments [125].

is already available in several colors, and it can be used for studying or obtaining different thicknesses, strengths, finishes, and textures. It is already applied in the production of clothing, bags and shoes, furniture, packaging, and automobile and transport accessories [93]. It is used to coat a textile substrate with a polymeric mixture, consisting of a cake residue flour and a derived polymer of oil extracted

The German company nat-2™ developed a material similar to leather, obtained from coffee bean wastes [95, 96]. With this material a line of unisex sneakers was created, whose upper part contains recycled coffee, coffee beans and coffee plant, which constitutes up to 50% of the footwear surface, according the model. The coffee is applied in a layer, giving a soft touch and a coffee aroma. Two Mexican inventors, Adrian Lopez and Marte Cazarez, recently created a laminate based on nopal cactus (or figs), which resembles animal leather, that is breathable, environmentally sustainable and totally plant-based (cotton and Nopal blend), lasts at least 10 years and has the chemical and physical properties required by the fashion industries, furniture, leather goods and automobiles [97, 98]. The material is obtained by coating a cotton substrate with a mixture of dry (in the sun) and crushed cactus powder

and protein extracted from the cactus, which serves as a natural binder [99].

This consists of the preparation of a paste with ground leather wastes and binding agents, which is extruded, using a process similar to the production of paper [100]. This paste can be applied on a textile support, coated with a PU film and embossed to gain a leather-like texture [101]. The colour and pattern are checked by a surface treatment. The amount of leather fibres in bonded leather can vary, which is reflected in the quality of the material. This product is usually used in furniture, bookbinding and fashion accessories. Depending on the quality of the product, it can be a durable material, with flame retardancy, and does not develop a patina. The number of patents on reconstituted or recycled leather is extensive, without, however, mentioning the use of textile support for the application of the paste with

Another leather-like material example is bonded leather or reconstituted leather.

RecycLeather™ is a green technology company that produces recycled materials with the look and feel of leather, highly durable, resistant and light. The materials are obtained from leather waste, in particular, cut pieces from gloves. It consists of 60% leather waste, 30% latex (a natural binder) and 10% synthetic products, such

EcoDomo also has some collections with recycled leather [126]. This is obtained

Hydrolysed collagen has recently been applied in the leather manufacturing process, and in the production of flexible composite sheets, with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and cellulose derivatives, for application products in the area of footwear, clothing, etc. [128–130]. The application of collagen hydrolysates in leather production consisted of its mixture with oxazolidines before application, but the obtained results were not as good as those attained by tanning [45, 46]. The application of this by-product, without chromium separation, in the manufacture of flexible composite sheets with both PVP and cellulose allowed the obtaining of composites with improved mechanical properties (composites with PVP and cellulose) and

by pulverized leather fibres, obtaining materials with a leather content of up to 70%. It is available for different applications, such as furniture, panels, flooring, etc. EmbraceTM also has different materials, similar to leather, obtained from leather

waste (43–58%), blended with cotton and polyester, and a PU topcoat [127].

Gelatex is a non-woven fabric (with nanofibres) made from gelatine derived from waste from the meat and leather industries, developed by Gelatex Technologies, a start-up from Estonia [132]. It is a material with a touch similar

greater thermal stability (cellulose composites) [47, 131].

**116**

The mobilizing project TexBoost—less Commodities more Specialties is a structuring project of the Textile Cluster: Technology and Fashion, which aims to include a set of R&D initiatives with a strong collective character and high inductor and demonstrator effect, with the central involvement of companies of the textile and clothing sector, but also of other complementary sectors of the economy [134]. TexBoost consortium, led by RIOPELE and under the technical coordination of CITEVE, involves a total of 43 entities, of which 23 are industrial companies of the entire textile industry and 15 are non-corporate entities of the research and innovation system.

The project is organized into six PPS—products, processes and services—of which it is worth highlighting the PPS5, sustainability and circular economy. This PPS5 aims the development of materials and solutions using wastes and by-products of other industries (footwear, automobile, cork, forest and milk industry) in new and innovative textile solutions.

For the first nuclear activity, vegan leather, the R&D work was focused in the development of a new generation of coated textile solutions that could be used as an alternative to natural and/or synthetic leather, using wastes and by-products of vegetable origin with new multifunctional properties combined with design and special fashion effects form the basis of this activity. The aim of this work were also to respond to one of the major trends in consumption, related to ethically and environmentally sustainable attitudes, developing products with a high potential for application in technical and functional areas, such as technofashion, eco-design, clothing, decoration, home textiles, footwear, fashion accessories, sport and protection, among others.

During the project, several agro-industrial wastes were studied, and from them, eco-friendly and Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)-compliant coating formulations were developed, and 100% cotton textile substrates were coated by knife coating (**Figure 1**).

The mechanical performance of the developed solutions was assessed through a series of normalized tests, namely, Veslic friction resistance (ISO 11640: 2012), Martindale abrasion resistance (ISO 17704:2004), Crockmeter friction resistance (ISO 20433:2012), colour fastness (ISO 105-B02) and coating peeling (ISO 11644:2009) (N/cm). The obtained results are summarized in **Table 5**. In a general way, it is possible to conclude that the developed solutions pass the performance norms and specifications.

Regarding the second nuclear activity—alternative leather solutions—the R&D activities focused on the development of a new generation of coated textile solutions by using wastes and by-products resulting from industrial operations, such as the tanning industry, natural leather cutting (for indoor automotive) and EVA (for shoe components), here highlighting the leather wastes, with new multifunctional properties combined with fashion design and special effects. The aim was also to meet one of the major trends of current consumption, which is related to ethically and environmentally sustainable behaviour, developing products with high potential for application in technical and functional areas and in rapid expansion: technofashion, eco-design, clothing, decoration, home textiles, footwear, fashion accessories, sport and protection, among others.

During the project, leather waste was studied, eco-friendly and REACHcompliant coating formulations were developed, and 100% cotton textile substrates were coated by knife coating (**Figure 2**).

#### **Figure 1.**

*Vegan leather solutions based on sawdust (left) and coffee grounds (right).*


*a Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.*

*b Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of colour change; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles. c Martindale abrasion resistance: dry, abrasion degree.*

*d Crockmeter friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; wet and dry—ten cycles.*

*e Light fastness: xenon lamp, flower side; colour fastness.*

#### **Table 5.**

*Mechanical performance evaluation of the coffee ground-based vegan leather and of the sawdust vegan leather samples.*

The mechanical performance of the developed solutions was assessed through a series of normalized tests, namely, Veslic friction resistance (ISO 11640: 2012), Martindale abrasion resistance (ISO 17704:2004), Crockmeter fiction resistance (ISO 20433:2012), and colour fastness (ISO 105-B02). The obtained results are summarized in **Table 6**. In a general way, it is possible to conclude that the developed solutions pass the performance norms and specifications.

Finally, the other approach of the PPS was research and development of a new generation of coated textile solutions, using wastes and by-products of the dairy industry, with new multifunctional properties combined with design and special fashion effects. Specifically, the two main goals were functionalization of textiles with milk proteins to improve UV protection and use of milk proteins to encapsulate bioactive compounds (such as antioxidants) and subsequent functionalization of textiles.

So, in the present project, 2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) method was used for the evaluation of antioxidant activity of a whey protein fraction impregnated in textile substrate. This spectrophotometric method assesses the stabilization capacity of the ABTS radical formed from certain compounds. In other words, it indicates the percentage of inhibition of the ABTS radical after contact with the compounds.

**119**

**6. Conclusions**

*Innovation of Textiles through Natural By-Products and Wastes*

*Alternative leather solutions based on leather waste (left) and hydrolysed collagen (right).*

**leather**

3200 rev.: B 12,800 rev:B 25,600 rev:C 51,200 rev:C

Veslica,b 3–5 3–5

Crockmeterd 2–5 3–5 Colour fastnesse 3–4 4–5

*Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.*

*Crockmeter friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; wet and dry—ten cycles.*

*Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of colour change; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.*

**Hydrolysed collagen-based vegan leather**

> 1600–3200 rev.: A 6400–51,200 rev.: B

**Normative test Leather waste-based alternative** 

Martindalec 1600 rev.: A

*Martindale abrasion resistance: dry, abrasion degree.*

*Light fastness: xenon lamp, flower side; colour fastness.*

For this, microcapsules of a milk fraction were prepared with and without an antioxidant compound. These microcapsules were used to functionalize a textile substrate and analysed by ABTS method. To the textile substrate, the relative antioxidant ability to scavenge the radical ABTS+ was compared to the textile control, without functionalization. It was possible to verify that all the protein fraction gave the substrates significantly higher ABTS inhibition percentages than the controls,

Since textiles had a high antioxidant potential, the capacity of this potential was verified in terms of protecting the colours of textiles when exposed to UV radiation. In this way, the textiles were stained with a dye and exposed for 12 hours to UV radiation. It was found that after 12 hours of exposure to UV radiation, the control showed a high degradation of the stain colour. On the other hand, the functionalization of textiles delayed the process of colour photodegradation, since after 12 hours

The potential for reusing natural by-products and wastes from different sources

of exposure, none of the stains had yet reached the same colour reduction.

was reviewed in this chapter, describing their most attractive properties and

with a slight increase when the antioxidant is present.

*Mechanical performance evaluation of the alternative leather samples.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93011*

**Figure 2.**

*a*

*b*

*c*

*d*

*e*

**Table 6.**

#### **Figure 2.**

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

The mechanical performance of the developed solutions was assessed through a series of normalized tests, namely, Veslic friction resistance (ISO 11640: 2012), Martindale abrasion resistance (ISO 17704:2004), Crockmeter fiction resistance (ISO 20433:2012), and colour fastness (ISO 105-B02). The obtained results are summarized in **Table 6**. In a general way, it is possible to conclude that the developed

*Mechanical performance evaluation of the coffee ground-based vegan leather and of the sawdust vegan leather* 

**leather**

6400 rev.: B 51,200 rev.: B

Veslica,b 5 5

Crockmeterd 5 5 Colour fastnesse 3–4 3 Coating peeling (dry)/(N/cm) 30 31.2

*Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.*

*Crockmeter friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; wet and dry—ten cycles.*

*Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of colour change; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.*

**Sawdust-based vegan leather**

3200 rev.: A 6400 rev.: B 12,800 rev.: B 25,600 rev.: C 51,200 rev.: C

Finally, the other approach of the PPS was research and development of a new generation of coated textile solutions, using wastes and by-products of the dairy industry, with new multifunctional properties combined with design and special fashion effects. Specifically, the two main goals were functionalization of textiles with milk proteins to improve UV protection and use of milk proteins to encapsulate bioactive compounds (such as antioxidants) and subsequent functionalization of textiles. So, in the present project, 2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) method was used for the evaluation of antioxidant activity of a whey protein fraction impregnated in textile substrate. This spectrophotometric method assesses the stabilization capacity of the ABTS radical formed from certain compounds. In other words, it indicates the percentage of inhibition of the ABTS radical

solutions pass the performance norms and specifications.

**Normative test Coffee ground-based vegan** 

*Vegan leather solutions based on sawdust (left) and coffee grounds (right).*

Martindalec 3200 rev.: A

*Martindale abrasion resistance: dry, abrasion degree.*

*Light fastness: xenon lamp, flower side; colour fastness.*

**118**

*a*

**Figure 1.**

*b*

*c*

*d*

*e*

**Table 5.**

*samples.*

after contact with the compounds.

*Alternative leather solutions based on leather waste (left) and hydrolysed collagen (right).*


*a Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles.*

*b Veslic friction resistance: flower side, degree of colour change; dry skin/wet felt—50/100 cycles. c*

*Martindale abrasion resistance: dry, abrasion degree.*

*d Crockmeter friction resistance: flower side, degree of staining; wet and dry—ten cycles.*

*e Light fastness: xenon lamp, flower side; colour fastness.*

#### **Table 6.**

*Mechanical performance evaluation of the alternative leather samples.*

For this, microcapsules of a milk fraction were prepared with and without an antioxidant compound. These microcapsules were used to functionalize a textile substrate and analysed by ABTS method. To the textile substrate, the relative antioxidant ability to scavenge the radical ABTS+ was compared to the textile control, without functionalization. It was possible to verify that all the protein fraction gave the substrates significantly higher ABTS inhibition percentages than the controls, with a slight increase when the antioxidant is present.

Since textiles had a high antioxidant potential, the capacity of this potential was verified in terms of protecting the colours of textiles when exposed to UV radiation. In this way, the textiles were stained with a dye and exposed for 12 hours to UV radiation. It was found that after 12 hours of exposure to UV radiation, the control showed a high degradation of the stain colour. On the other hand, the functionalization of textiles delayed the process of colour photodegradation, since after 12 hours of exposure, none of the stains had yet reached the same colour reduction.
