**3. General outlook of the current situation of the textile fibers**

The world population has grown tremendously in the past few decades, and the same period also witnessed improvements in living standards in general. These two developments have augmented the consumption of textiles, which in turn increased textile production [38]. The effect of the rising living standards can be seen in the fact that the worldwide consumption of textiles is growing faster than the world population. The demand is expected to grow from around 30 million tons in 1980 to more than 130 million tons in 2025. The figure translates into a growth of over 400%—or an average annual growth rate of 4.3%. In the same period, the world population has been growing by only 1.7% [39].

Global production of all apparel and textile fibers amounted to 110 million tons in 2018, according to the Discover Natural Fibers Initiative (DNFI). This number points to an increase of 4 million tons compared with the previous year and of 35 million tons compared with a decade ago. Natural fibers represent 29%—a 12% decrease since 2008. In 2018, cotton represented 81% of natural fiber production by weight, which overshadows the share of jute, coir and wool, which account for 7%, 3% and 3%, respectively. Cellulosic fiber production represented 6%, synthetic filament 45% and synthetic staple 20% of the total production in 2018. Polyester is the leading synthetic fiber, which represents almost 90% of world filament production and 70% of world synthetic staple production. The rest of the synthetic fibers are mostly composed of nylon, acrylic and polypropylene. However, the figures do not translate into a plunge in the production of natural fibers. The share of natural fibers in total fiber production has decreased in the last decade because the production of polyester has increased exponentially. Synthetic filament production, which is mainly used for the production of fast-fashion apparel, has risen from 26 million tons to 50 million in a decade after 2008, almost doubling in size. During the same period, synthetic staple production increased from 15 million tons to 22 million. Natural fiber production also increased from 2008 to 2018, but the rate was nowhere close to the others: from 31 million tons to 32 million [40].

The global market is prevailed by two types of fibers: polyester, a synthetic fiber, and cotton, a natural fiber. The trend mentioned in the previous paragraph is clearly reflected when the figures for these two fibers are examined. The demand for polyester has doubled—a significant rise that resulted in the fact that polyester has succeeded cotton, the most widely used fiber until the 2000s. Polyester fiber production is estimated to increase to be 3 times more than cotton production in order to meet the still-growing demand, while the production of cotton fibers remained stable. Increasing the production of cotton depends on the land and water resources, which are limited, and the fact that the opportunities to increase yields of cotton cultivation are narrow does not help either. These constraints on cotton production are very significant to understand the growth of the synthetic fiber market [39].

Still, it is important to point out that, despite the growth of synthetic fiber production, cotton, a product with very good fiber characteristics, remains to be

**45**

*Textile Wastes: Status and Perspectives*

cotton [19, 20].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92234*

conservation of the environment [25, 41].

considered as the most popular fiber. It is not expected that cotton would largely be replaced or eliminated in the short or medium term from the textile production. Thus, sustainability strategies for cotton will persist to be paramount for the

Synthetic polymers are mainly produced from petroleum—a nonrenewable resource. But this is not limited to synthetic fibers: Renewable natural polymers such as cotton also depend on nonrenewable resources, because their production needs energy and chemicals that are actually produced from nonrenewable resources. The petroleum reserve of the world might last for several more centuries if the current consumption rates continue, but it does not change the fact that petroleum—like many other natural resources—cannot be replaced in practical terms [42]. Therefore, deciding if natural fibers or manufactured fibers are more eco-friendly is impossible. The production of all types of fibers comes with its own challenges. Some fibers need a lot of water, while others demand lots of energy to produce. The synthetic fibers are not fully biodegradable like the natural and cellulosic fibers, which broadens the waste aspect of the problem. Synthetic fibers are generally petroleum by-products, which makes them nonrenewable materials; however, this gives them the advantage to get conveniently recycled into a goodquality material like polyester—a contrast with cotton, which generally gets downcycled. But recently, the market has also started to receive recycled, high-quality

Made-By, a nonprofit organization, carried out a study called "The

viscose, rayon, spandex (elastane), virgin nylon and wool [43].

flow—which focuses on reusing and recycling.

**4. Textile wastes and recycling**

To protect not just human life on Earth, but Earth itself, we have to use the natural resources adequately. The rates at which natural resources are generated and consumed have to be appropriate for the sustainability of the planet. The 2011 annual report of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts the rate of consumption to triple the current rate by the year 2050 [44]. One alternative way to approach the solution of this problem is gradually replacing the traditional linear economy model—which relies on extraction/cultivation of raw materials, use of the product and disposal of the waste in landfills—with the circular material

Consumption of textile products has two main aspects that trigger environmental change: the pollution and waste brought about, and the natural resources

Environmental Benchmark for Fibres." The study focuses on the prevalent fibers in the clothing industry and compares the environmental impact of the production of these materials. The production of the fibers is analyzed from the raw material up until the preparation of the fiber to be spun, thus excluding the later stages, such as spinning itself, fabric manufacturing, dyeing and finishing, garment making, transportation of the product and consumption. The study lists 28 fibers from Class A to Class E (Class A being the most benign) not regarding their quality, durability or performance, but their direct effects on the environment: greenhouse gas emissions, human toxicity, eco-toxicity, energy input, water input and land use [43]. The results demonstrate that all mechanically recycled fibers and organic fibers score "positively," while both natural and synthetic fibers obtained by conventional production methods are far behind in sustainability ranking. Class A materials include mechanically recycled nylon, mechanically recycled polyester, organic flax (linen), organic hemp, recycled cotton and recycled wool, while Class E materials include bamboo viscose, conventional cotton, cuprammonium rayon, generic

### *Textile Wastes: Status and Perspectives DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92234*

*Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors*

workers along with the hearing problems [37].

population has been growing by only 1.7% [39].

environmental change that affects health and human well-being. Odor impacts people by strong, unpleasant or offensive smells that can interfere with one's enjoyment of life especially if they are frequent and/or persistent [36]. When it comes to noise pollution, there are different processes in the textile chain that can produce noise level above 90 dB(A), the allowed limit, and can cause problems especially for the workers. The dry processes produce more noise than the wet processes, due to the fast-moving parts in the processing machines, which is another danger for the

**3. General outlook of the current situation of the textile fibers**

nowhere close to the others: from 31 million tons to 32 million [40].

The global market is prevailed by two types of fibers: polyester, a synthetic fiber, and cotton, a natural fiber. The trend mentioned in the previous paragraph is clearly reflected when the figures for these two fibers are examined. The demand for polyester has doubled—a significant rise that resulted in the fact that polyester has succeeded cotton, the most widely used fiber until the 2000s. Polyester fiber production is estimated to increase to be 3 times more than cotton production in order to meet the still-growing demand, while the production of cotton fibers remained stable. Increasing the production of cotton depends on the land and water resources, which are limited, and the fact that the opportunities to increase yields of cotton cultivation are narrow does not help either. These constraints on cotton production are very significant to understand the growth of the synthetic fiber market [39]. Still, it is important to point out that, despite the growth of synthetic fiber production, cotton, a product with very good fiber characteristics, remains to be

The world population has grown tremendously in the past few decades, and the same period also witnessed improvements in living standards in general. These two developments have augmented the consumption of textiles, which in turn increased textile production [38]. The effect of the rising living standards can be seen in the fact that the worldwide consumption of textiles is growing faster than the world population. The demand is expected to grow from around 30 million tons in 1980 to more than 130 million tons in 2025. The figure translates into a growth of over 400%—or an average annual growth rate of 4.3%. In the same period, the world

Global production of all apparel and textile fibers amounted to 110 million tons in 2018, according to the Discover Natural Fibers Initiative (DNFI). This number points to an increase of 4 million tons compared with the previous year and of 35 million tons compared with a decade ago. Natural fibers represent 29%—a 12% decrease since 2008. In 2018, cotton represented 81% of natural fiber production by weight, which overshadows the share of jute, coir and wool, which account for 7%, 3% and 3%, respectively. Cellulosic fiber production represented 6%, synthetic filament 45% and synthetic staple 20% of the total production in 2018. Polyester is the leading synthetic fiber, which represents almost 90% of world filament production and 70% of world synthetic staple production. The rest of the synthetic fibers are mostly composed of nylon, acrylic and polypropylene. However, the figures do not translate into a plunge in the production of natural fibers. The share of natural fibers in total fiber production has decreased in the last decade because the production of polyester has increased exponentially. Synthetic filament production, which is mainly used for the production of fast-fashion apparel, has risen from 26 million tons to 50 million in a decade after 2008, almost doubling in size. During the same period, synthetic staple production increased from 15 million tons to 22 million. Natural fiber production also increased from 2008 to 2018, but the rate was

**44**

considered as the most popular fiber. It is not expected that cotton would largely be replaced or eliminated in the short or medium term from the textile production. Thus, sustainability strategies for cotton will persist to be paramount for the conservation of the environment [25, 41].

Synthetic polymers are mainly produced from petroleum—a nonrenewable resource. But this is not limited to synthetic fibers: Renewable natural polymers such as cotton also depend on nonrenewable resources, because their production needs energy and chemicals that are actually produced from nonrenewable resources. The petroleum reserve of the world might last for several more centuries if the current consumption rates continue, but it does not change the fact that petroleum—like many other natural resources—cannot be replaced in practical terms [42]. Therefore, deciding if natural fibers or manufactured fibers are more eco-friendly is impossible. The production of all types of fibers comes with its own challenges. Some fibers need a lot of water, while others demand lots of energy to produce. The synthetic fibers are not fully biodegradable like the natural and cellulosic fibers, which broadens the waste aspect of the problem. Synthetic fibers are generally petroleum by-products, which makes them nonrenewable materials; however, this gives them the advantage to get conveniently recycled into a goodquality material like polyester—a contrast with cotton, which generally gets downcycled. But recently, the market has also started to receive recycled, high-quality cotton [19, 20].

Made-By, a nonprofit organization, carried out a study called "The Environmental Benchmark for Fibres." The study focuses on the prevalent fibers in the clothing industry and compares the environmental impact of the production of these materials. The production of the fibers is analyzed from the raw material up until the preparation of the fiber to be spun, thus excluding the later stages, such as spinning itself, fabric manufacturing, dyeing and finishing, garment making, transportation of the product and consumption. The study lists 28 fibers from Class A to Class E (Class A being the most benign) not regarding their quality, durability or performance, but their direct effects on the environment: greenhouse gas emissions, human toxicity, eco-toxicity, energy input, water input and land use [43].

The results demonstrate that all mechanically recycled fibers and organic fibers score "positively," while both natural and synthetic fibers obtained by conventional production methods are far behind in sustainability ranking. Class A materials include mechanically recycled nylon, mechanically recycled polyester, organic flax (linen), organic hemp, recycled cotton and recycled wool, while Class E materials include bamboo viscose, conventional cotton, cuprammonium rayon, generic viscose, rayon, spandex (elastane), virgin nylon and wool [43].

To protect not just human life on Earth, but Earth itself, we have to use the natural resources adequately. The rates at which natural resources are generated and consumed have to be appropriate for the sustainability of the planet. The 2011 annual report of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts the rate of consumption to triple the current rate by the year 2050 [44]. One alternative way to approach the solution of this problem is gradually replacing the traditional linear economy model—which relies on extraction/cultivation of raw materials, use of the product and disposal of the waste in landfills—with the circular material flow—which focuses on reusing and recycling.
