**1. Introduction**

The discipline of "Forest Utilization" in Japan was introduced with reference to the German "Forstbenutzung" at the end of the nineteenth century. The Forstbenutzung covers not only the processes of felling, processing, yarding/skidding, and transporting trees but also wood anatomy, wood physics, wood processing, and wood craft; therefore, it can be said that the Forstbenutzung pursues the rational utilization of forests and trees. In the case of Japan, the research subjects of wood anatomy, wood physics, wood processing, and wood craft went independent as the Wood Science after World War II; thus, the Forest Utilization has progressed to cover the fields of civil engineering, machine engineering, operational efficiency, and ergonomics in forestry. From this point of view, the current Japanese Forest Utilization is similar to the Forest Engineering developed in North America and the Forest Operations developed in Europe.

Research and development (R&D) in the Forest Utilization is very important to make the Japanese forestry economically viable. Now, the stumpage price, i.e., the price of standing trees per m3 , *Q*' (USD/m3 ), is expressed as:

$$\boldsymbol{Q}^{\cdot} = \left(\boldsymbol{P} - \boldsymbol{Q}\right) \times \frac{\boldsymbol{n}}{\mathbf{1} \bullet \mathbf{0}} \tag{1}$$

where *P* (USD/m3 ) is the market price of roundwood, *Q* (USD/m3 ) is the logging cost, and *n* (%) is the utilization percentage to standing tree volume. *Q*' contains the costs of reforestation and tending; thus, the forestry itself cannot be economically justified when *Q*' is cheaper than a certain level. Then, *Q* is expressed as a function of yarding/skidding distance, *x* (m):

$$Q = a + b \times \infty + c \tag{2}$$

where *a* (USD/m3 ) is the cost of felling and processing trees, *b* (USD/m3 /m) is the yarding/skidding cost per unit length of yarding/skidding distance, and *c* (USD/m3 ) is the overhead cost. In order to increase the income of forest owners, *Q*' of Eq. (1) must be increased, that is, *Q* of Eq. (2) must be reduced; therefore, *a* and *b* of Eq. (2) must be diminished by developing efficient forestry machines as well as by improving logging methods, and *x* of Eq. (2) must be shortened by developing forest road networks. Improving the utilization percentage, *n* of Eq. (1), is also effective. Utilization of residual forest biomass such as logging residues, that is, tree tops and branches that are generated during limbing and bucking, and small-sized trees that are felled at pre-commercial stages can raise the utilization percentage, leading to increase in the income of forest owners.

In this chapter, with the aim of showing the R&D of forest biomass production and its utilization within the framework of the Japanese Forest Utilization, the current situation of forests and forestry as well as woody biomass utilization in Japan is described, and the future outlook for the use of forest biomass in Japan is presented.

#### **2. Current situation of forests and forestry in Japan**

The current total forest area in Japan is about 25 million ha. As shown in **Table 1**, in densely populated countries such as the USA, Canada, and Germany,


**131**

**Figure 1.**

*Changes in the breakdown of the Japanese forest area.*

*Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan*

slightly more than 30% of national land area is covered with forest [1]. Japan has a population size similar to the abovementioned countries; however, forest occupies almost two-thirds of the national land, which is the same level as in sparsely populated Sweden and Finland. This can be attributed to the steepness of so much

**Figure 1** shows the changes in the breakdown of the Japanese forest area [2]. The total forest area has been constant for more than a half century. Historically, naturally regenerated forests were converted to planted forests. During and after World War II, quite large numbers of trees were felled and harvested, so afforestation was actively promoted from the 1950s to the 1970s in order to compensate. Ten million hectares of man-made planted forests, which equals almost 30% of the total

On the other hand, after World War II, the more the Japanese economy grew, the worse the profitability of forestry became. Young people left rural areas, and then the self-sufficiency rate of wood decreased continuously. Thus, the incentive for afforestation was gradually diminished. As shown in **Figure 2**, consequently, the current age distribution of planted forest is extremely imbalanced, so that 65% of planted forests that are older than 45 years reach the time for being harvested

**Figure 3** shows the changes in the growing stock [2]. The growing stock keeps increasing mainly because of the dominance of young planted forests. The cur-

to that of Austria might be expected if the forest infrastructure was well developed and the logging system was fully mechanized, but in practice, this is very difficult

The changes in the wood supply and demand are shown in **Figure 4** [2]. As mentioned previously, the self-sufficiency rate continuously decreased in inverse proportion to the economic growth during the latter half of the twentieth century. The trade in roundwood was completely liberalized in 1964, more than a half

/ha. This means that an operational efficiency equivalent

/ha, is similar to that of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93433*

national land area, was established in the 1980s.

rent average stem volume per 1 ha of planted forest, 324 m3

of the land area in Japan.

finally [2].

to achieve.

Austrian forests, 325 m3

**Table 1.**

*Comparison of land area, forest area, and population.*

#### *Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93433*

slightly more than 30% of national land area is covered with forest [1]. Japan has a population size similar to the abovementioned countries; however, forest occupies almost two-thirds of the national land, which is the same level as in sparsely populated Sweden and Finland. This can be attributed to the steepness of so much of the land area in Japan.

**Figure 1** shows the changes in the breakdown of the Japanese forest area [2]. The total forest area has been constant for more than a half century. Historically, naturally regenerated forests were converted to planted forests. During and after World War II, quite large numbers of trees were felled and harvested, so afforestation was actively promoted from the 1950s to the 1970s in order to compensate. Ten million hectares of man-made planted forests, which equals almost 30% of the total national land area, was established in the 1980s.

On the other hand, after World War II, the more the Japanese economy grew, the worse the profitability of forestry became. Young people left rural areas, and then the self-sufficiency rate of wood decreased continuously. Thus, the incentive for afforestation was gradually diminished. As shown in **Figure 2**, consequently, the current age distribution of planted forest is extremely imbalanced, so that 65% of planted forests that are older than 45 years reach the time for being harvested finally [2].

**Figure 3** shows the changes in the growing stock [2]. The growing stock keeps increasing mainly because of the dominance of young planted forests. The current average stem volume per 1 ha of planted forest, 324 m3 /ha, is similar to that of Austrian forests, 325 m3 /ha. This means that an operational efficiency equivalent to that of Austria might be expected if the forest infrastructure was well developed and the logging system was fully mechanized, but in practice, this is very difficult to achieve.

The changes in the wood supply and demand are shown in **Figure 4** [2]. As mentioned previously, the self-sufficiency rate continuously decreased in inverse proportion to the economic growth during the latter half of the twentieth century. The trade in roundwood was completely liberalized in 1964, more than a half

**Figure 1.**

*Changes in the breakdown of the Japanese forest area.*

*Biotechnological Applications of Biomass*

price of standing trees per m3

where *P* (USD/m3

where *a* (USD/m3

(USD/m3

function of yarding/skidding distance, *x* (m):

leading to increase in the income of forest owners.

**2. Current situation of forests and forestry in Japan**

Research and development (R&D) in the Forest Utilization is very important to make the Japanese forestry economically viable. Now, the stumpage price, i.e., the

( ) <sup>100</sup>

) is the market price of roundwood, *Q* (USD/m3

) is the cost of felling and processing trees, *b* (USD/m3

) is the overhead cost. In order to increase the income of forest owners, *Q*'

cost, and *n* (%) is the utilization percentage to standing tree volume. *Q*' contains the costs of reforestation and tending; thus, the forestry itself cannot be economically justified when *Q*' is cheaper than a certain level. Then, *Q* is expressed as a

is the yarding/skidding cost per unit length of yarding/skidding distance, and *c*

of Eq. (1) must be increased, that is, *Q* of Eq. (2) must be reduced; therefore, *a* and *b* of Eq. (2) must be diminished by developing efficient forestry machines as well as by improving logging methods, and *x* of Eq. (2) must be shortened by developing forest road networks. Improving the utilization percentage, *n* of Eq. (1), is also effective. Utilization of residual forest biomass such as logging residues, that is, tree tops and branches that are generated during limbing and bucking, and small-sized trees that are felled at pre-commercial stages can raise the utilization percentage,

In this chapter, with the aim of showing the R&D of forest biomass production and its utilization within the framework of the Japanese Forest Utilization, the current situation of forests and forestry as well as woody biomass utilization in Japan is described, and the future outlook for the use of forest biomass in Japan is presented.

The current total forest area in Japan is about 25 million ha. As shown in **Table 1**, in densely populated countries such as the USA, Canada, and Germany,

**Region Country Land area [A] Forest area [B] B/A Population**

Asia Japan 36,450 24,958 68.5 126,573 North America USA 916,192 310,095 33.8 321,774

Central Europe Germany 34,861 11,419 32.8 80,689

Northern Europe Sweden 41,034 28,073 68.4 9,779

), is expressed as:

*<sup>n</sup> Q PQ* ′ =−× (1)

*Q abxc* =+×+ (2)

**(x 1,000 ha) (x 1,000 ha)** (%) **(x 1,000)**

Canada 909,351 347,069 38.2 35,940

Austria 8,244 3,869 46.9 8,545

Finland 30,390 22,218 73.1 5,503

) is the logging

/m)

, *Q*' (USD/m3

**130**

**Table 1.**

*Comparison of land area, forest area, and population.*

**Figure 2.** *Age distribution of planted forest (as of March 2017).*

**Figure 3.** *Changes in the growing stock.*

century ago. Since the middle of the 1990s, Japan has been in an economic slump, so the demand for wood is shrinking. On the other hand, planted forests are maturing, and thus, the supply of domestic wood is gradually increasing and the self-sufficiency rate itself is improving, the driving force for which will be explained later.

**133**

**Figure 5.**

**Figure 4.**

*Changes in the wood supply and demand.*

possible during the 1960s.

*Number of workers that can be employed by 1 m3*

*Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan*

stumpage price of standing Japanese cedar trees by the daily wage of a forestry worker. It can be read from the graph that, even in Japan, labor-intensive work was

The changes in the number of forestry workers are shown in **Figure 6** [2]. The number of forestry workers decreased by more than 100,000 in the past 35 years, and the percentage of aged workers (>65 years old) is relatively higher than that in other industries in Japan. On the other hand, forestry is the only industry in Japan in which the percentage of young workers (<35 years old) is increasing. The replacement of manual labor by mechanization in the limbing, bucking, and yarding/forwarding processes, but not in the felling process, seems to be contributing to this. **Figure 7** illustrates a typical mechanized logging system in Japan. The system is similar to that of Austrian mountainous areas. Nearly 10,000 advanced forestry

 *of standing Japanese cedar trees.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93433*

**Figure 5** shows the number of workers that can be employed by 1 m3 of standing Japanese cedar trees [3]. The number of workers is calculated by dividing the

*Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93433*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Biotechnological Applications of Biomass*

*Age distribution of planted forest (as of March 2017).*

**132**

**Figure 3.**

*Changes in the growing stock.*

**Figure 2.**

century ago. Since the middle of the 1990s, Japan has been in an economic slump, so the demand for wood is shrinking. On the other hand, planted forests are maturing, and thus, the supply of domestic wood is gradually increasing and the self-sufficiency rate itself is improving, the driving force for which will be explained later. **Figure 5** shows the number of workers that can be employed by 1 m3

ing Japanese cedar trees [3]. The number of workers is calculated by dividing the

of stand-

*Changes in the wood supply and demand.*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Number of workers that can be employed by 1 m3 of standing Japanese cedar trees.*

stumpage price of standing Japanese cedar trees by the daily wage of a forestry worker. It can be read from the graph that, even in Japan, labor-intensive work was possible during the 1960s.

The changes in the number of forestry workers are shown in **Figure 6** [2]. The number of forestry workers decreased by more than 100,000 in the past 35 years, and the percentage of aged workers (>65 years old) is relatively higher than that in other industries in Japan. On the other hand, forestry is the only industry in Japan in which the percentage of young workers (<35 years old) is increasing. The replacement of manual labor by mechanization in the limbing, bucking, and yarding/forwarding processes, but not in the felling process, seems to be contributing to this.

**Figure 7** illustrates a typical mechanized logging system in Japan. The system is similar to that of Austrian mountainous areas. Nearly 10,000 advanced forestry

#### **Figure 6.**

*Changes in the number of forestry workers.*

**Figure 7.** *Typical mechanized logging system in Japan.*

machines such as processors, tower yarders, and forwarders have been introduced, and 70% of the logs produced are processed by such forestry machines. However, there are not enough forest roads, so supplemental lower-grade operation roads have been constructed, and a forwarder uses them to haul logs to a forest road.

A comparison of productivity and logging costs is given in **Table 2** [4]. In Japan, the rate of operation of advanced forestry machines remains at a low level, which makes the productivity low and the logging cost high. It is said that, in Austria, intensive investments were made in the development of a forest road network in the 1960s, when the price of wood was relatively higher. Although the price of wood fell and the labor cost rose after that, the productivity was improved by mechanization. The forest road network density in Japan, 19.7 m/ha (13.1 m/ha for forest roads and 6.6 m/ha for operation roads), is less than a quarter of that in Austria, 89 m/ha (45 m/ha for forest roads and 44 m/ha for operation roads). The development of a forest road network is relatively delayed in Japan.

**135**

**Figure 8.** *Mill residue.*

*Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan*

Japan (final cutting) 4.00 57.7 Japan (thinning) 3.45 84.8 Sweden 30 11.8 (final cutting)

Austria 7–43 29.1–50.0

**/man-day) Logging cost (USD/m3**

**)**

21.8 (thinning)

After the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997, renewable and carbon-neutral biomass attracted widespread attention for its potential as an ideal primary energy resource in a sustainable society. In 2001, the Japanese government officially

defined biomass as one of the new energy resources in the "Law Concerning Special Measures for Promotion of the Use of New Energy" [5], and the government decided on the "Biomass Nippon Strategy" in 2002 [6]. As mentioned previously, forest resources are abundant in Japan, and thus, the energy utilization of woody biomass is expected to contribute to a revitalization of the forestry and forest products industries, which have long been depressed. The annual available amount of woody biomass resources is estimated to be 31.7 million dry-t/y [7], which has a calorific value of 634 PJ/y, corresponding to 2.8% of the national primary energy supply, 23.0 EJ/y, and woody biomass utilization was expected to promote the tending of planted forests, many of which were being neglected when the Biomass Nippon Strategy was adopted. This triggered the energy and material utilization of waste woody biomass such as mill residues (**Figure 8**), wood-based waste materials

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93433*

**Country Productivity (m3**

**3. Woody biomass utilization in Japan**

*Comparison of productivity and logging costs.*

**Table 2.**

(**Figure 9**), and tree trimmings.

*Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93433*


**Table 2.**

*Biotechnological Applications of Biomass*

machines such as processors, tower yarders, and forwarders have been introduced, and 70% of the logs produced are processed by such forestry machines. However, there are not enough forest roads, so supplemental lower-grade operation roads have been constructed, and a forwarder uses them to haul logs to a forest road.

A comparison of productivity and logging costs is given in **Table 2** [4]. In Japan, the rate of operation of advanced forestry machines remains at a low level, which makes the productivity low and the logging cost high. It is said that, in Austria, intensive investments were made in the development of a forest road network in the 1960s, when the price of wood was relatively higher. Although the price of wood fell and the labor cost rose after that, the productivity was improved by mechanization. The forest road network density in Japan, 19.7 m/ha (13.1 m/ha for forest roads and 6.6 m/ha for operation roads), is less than a quarter of that in Austria, 89 m/ha (45 m/ha for forest roads and 44 m/ha for operation roads). The development of a

forest road network is relatively delayed in Japan.

**134**

**Figure 7.**

**Figure 6.**

*Typical mechanized logging system in Japan.*

*Changes in the number of forestry workers.*

*Comparison of productivity and logging costs.*
