**7. Two ways to understand objections to wind farms**

In order to make sense of the concept of NIMBYism and its practical implications, consideration is given here to attachment to, and identification with place, and to the concept of trust or distrust.

#### **7.1 Place protective action**

Devine-Wright (2009, p. 426-441) explains objections to wind farming by taking place protective action into account, by linking the concept of NIMBYism to place attachment and place identity. Place attachment is "the process of attaching oneself to a place and a produce of this process" (Guiliani in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 427). As product, "place attachment is a positive emotional connection with familiar locations, which can, if disrupted, lead to action, both at individual and collective levels" (Manzo in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 427). "Place identity refers to ways in which physical and symbolic attributes of certain locations contribute to an individual's sense of self or identity" (Proshansky et al. in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 428). Any disruption of place can show "the emotional bond between a person and location" and create feelings of "anxiety and loss"; and it not only affects "the physical aspects of place but also the social networks which are sources of support to individuals" (Fried in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 428).

#### **7.2 Place-protective action further developed**

Hindmarsh (2010, pp. 1-23) picks up the concept of place-protective action, suggesting that place-protection is important to communities targeted by developers and governments to site wind turbines. The major problem regarding wind farm location in Australia is inadequate community engagement. Wind energy presents "the most viable form of renewable energy" (p. 1), but "not enough recognition has been given to conflicts surrounding wind farm sitings" (p. 2). Hindmarsh looks critically at the Australian government's policies regarding wind farming and planning these sites. The current policy responses encourage an inform – consult - participatory engagement which is not sufficient, the community should have the final decision regarding the establishment of a wind farm, and the method of obtaining consent should be inform – consult – involve – collaborate – empower, with emphasis on collaboration and empowering, giving residents choices. Hindmarsh also proposes facilitating social mapping of local community qualifications and boundaries about wind farm location.

#### **7.3 Social trust and distrust**

There is indication in the literature that trust in politicians, policy makers and governments is diminishing (Kasperson, Golding & Tuler, 1992; Offor, 2002; Marquart-Pyatt & Petrzelka, 2008). Kasperson et al. (1992) explain the meaning of trusts, namely social trust is "a person's expectation that other persons and institutions in a social relationship can be relied upon to act in ways that are competent, predictable, and caring", and "social distrust is a person's expectation that other persons and institutions in a social relationship are likely to

they anticipate "to pay 1% to 9% less for their property due to the presence of a wind farm

In order to make sense of the concept of NIMBYism and its practical implications, consideration is given here to attachment to, and identification with place, and to the

Devine-Wright (2009, p. 426-441) explains objections to wind farming by taking place protective action into account, by linking the concept of NIMBYism to place attachment and place identity. Place attachment is "the process of attaching oneself to a place and a produce of this process" (Guiliani in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 427). As product, "place attachment is a positive emotional connection with familiar locations, which can, if disrupted, lead to action, both at individual and collective levels" (Manzo in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 427). "Place identity refers to ways in which physical and symbolic attributes of certain locations contribute to an individual's sense of self or identity" (Proshansky et al. in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 428). Any disruption of place can show "the emotional bond between a person and location" and create feelings of "anxiety and loss"; and it not only affects "the physical aspects of place but also the social networks which are sources of support to individuals"

Hindmarsh (2010, pp. 1-23) picks up the concept of place-protective action, suggesting that place-protection is important to communities targeted by developers and governments to site wind turbines. The major problem regarding wind farm location in Australia is inadequate community engagement. Wind energy presents "the most viable form of renewable energy" (p. 1), but "not enough recognition has been given to conflicts surrounding wind farm sitings" (p. 2). Hindmarsh looks critically at the Australian government's policies regarding wind farming and planning these sites. The current policy responses encourage an inform – consult - participatory engagement which is not sufficient, the community should have the final decision regarding the establishment of a wind farm, and the method of obtaining consent should be inform – consult – involve – collaborate – empower, with emphasis on collaboration and empowering, giving residents choices. Hindmarsh also proposes facilitating social mapping of local community qualifications and

There is indication in the literature that trust in politicians, policy makers and governments is diminishing (Kasperson, Golding & Tuler, 1992; Offor, 2002; Marquart-Pyatt & Petrzelka, 2008). Kasperson et al. (1992) explain the meaning of trusts, namely social trust is "a person's expectation that other persons and institutions in a social relationship can be relied upon to act in ways that are competent, predictable, and caring", and "social distrust is a person's expectation that other persons and institutions in a social relationship are likely to

The next section will explain reasons for the objections.

**7. Two ways to understand objections to wind farms** 

nearby" (p. 1).

concept of trust or distrust.

**7.1 Place protective action** 

(Fried in Devine-Wright, 2009, p. 428).

boundaries about wind farm location.

**7.3 Social trust and distrust** 

**7.2 Place-protective action further developed** 

act in ways that are incompetent, unpredictable, uncaring, and thus probably inimical" (p. 169). Kasperson et al.'s (1992) research demonstrates that siting of hazardous facilities "have often led to an impasse" because of the public perceptions of risk and overall uncertainty (p. 163). They recommend "risk communication" (p. 162) which should include a needs assessment, risk debate, monitoring and evaluation.

Initiatives based upon the explicit recognition of high social distrust may, through empowerment, risk clarification, and negotiation, ultimately prove to be more effective in the long-term recovery of social trust than approaches that assert that such trust is merited a priori … (Kasperson et al., 1992, p. 184).

How can we make sense of these arguments and relate them to the rational issue of greenhouse gas emissions? The next section will try and explain.

#### **8. Australia's greenhouse gas emissions – Isn't it time to act?**

The three countries which have been the largest drags on the global carbon reduction effort are the three highest per capita emitters amongst the developed countries – Australia, Canada and the United States (Garnaut, 2011b, p. 2).

"Scientific evidence points to increasing risks of serious, irreversible impacts from climate change associated with the business-as-usual attitudes regarding greenhouse gas emissions" (Stern Review, 2006, p. 3). Looking at Australia's CO2 emissions, earlier in this chapter it was established that Australia is in sixteenth position when the percentage of global total CO2 emission is considered (United Nations Statistics Division, 2008 a), emitting 399,219.00 tonnes of carbon dioxide in 2008 (United Nation Statistics Division, 2008a). Also in 2008, Australians emitted 18.94 tonnes of CO2 per capita annually (United Nations Statistics Division, 2008b, p. 1). Australians are "the worst per capita greenhouse gas emitter" (Taylor & Grubel, 9.7.2011, p. 1) of the developed world. And it is projected that the country's CO2 emissions will further rise (CSIRO, 2009; Garnaut, 2011b; Nolan, 2011; Knott, 2011; Chubby, 2011), which is "due mainly to growth in the resources sector" (Garnaut, 2011b, p. 2). Australia is one of the countries most at risk from climate change, partially because of the size of its agricultural sector and long coastline. Garnaut (2011a) urges Australia to follow the recommendations of global communities addressing climate change. Because of the risk factors, the country should "offer to reduce 2020 emissions by 25% in the context of strong international agreement" (Garnaut, 2011a, p. 63).

Bond (2009) looks at the present 83% of electricity which is produced by coal and contemplates "the growing domestic demand which forces investments into clean renewable energy" (p. 2). Looking at the numerous predictions that Australia's greenhouse gas emissions will further increase, what role could wind energy play?

One typical 2MW wind turbine can be expected to produce over 6,000MW hours of electricity each year. If this replaces coal-fired power, the CO2 released into the atmosphere will be reduced by 6,000 tonnes each year; if it replaces oil or gas-fired power, CO2 released each year is reduced by about 3,000 tonnes (Clarke, 2009, p. 4).

Changing progressively from coal- or gas-fired power to wind power would be a positive step when we look at CO2 emissions. And, as mentioned earlier, the present Australian government promotes the reduction of CO2 emissions and has set its sight on 20% of renewable energy by 2020. In practical terms, there should be no difficulty to achieve an even higher goal. Clarke (2010/2011) calculates that "if the best wind resources of Australia were developed at least 90GW of power is possible" (p. 2). Looking at different coastal

Wind Farming and the Not-in-My-Backyard Syndrome: A Literature Review

cleaner, renewable energy future.

NIMBYism in Australia requires further research.

will the rational or non-rational argument prevail?

9 See Section 3.

Regarding Australia's Challenge in Relation to Climate Change and CO2 Emissions 467

All of the above issues interlink and are important consideration in relation to CO2 emissions and the advancement of wind energy in Australia, but in what way and how much do they help in understanding NIMBYism? Having considered the main characteristics of NIMBYism, it is argued that the syndrome does not have a rational basis, that it is non-rational, and that we need to assess its validity because the rational consequences include the abandonment or suspension of facilities that could present a

In Australia four projects, worth 477MW of wind power, were abandoned or are suspended in 2010. While only some motives for the abandonment or suspension of these projects could be studied9, this literature review was triggered by objections of people to wind farming in rural and regional Australia. People's attachment to, and identification with place are powerful arguments when opposing the development of a wind farm. The literature shows that environmental disruption causes concerns which can lead to anxiety. Therefore this chapter looked at the most important concerns (biodiversity, reliability, cost, health, aesthetic of the environment) and challenged them. But it must be mentioned that a literature review has its limitations because people and their personal stories are not given a voice. There is always the possibility that personal stories let a researcher be less critical and more understanding. Despite these shortcomings, three important points remain: (1) Australia needs to reduce its CO2 emissions; (2) wind power is one of the most efficient sources of renewable energy at this point in time and could help achieve this task; (3)

We are confronted here with some rational facts (consequences) and with a sense of nonrationality, which makes it challenging to find a way out of the dilemma. All articles on NIMBYism state that improved communication between governments, developers and the public is vital. Hindmarsh (2010) provides some directives how this could be achieved, namely greater empowerment of residents in areas where wind turbines are to be installed. If instigated, will it work? Its allowance for the non-rational factor is not apparent. Consideration also has to be given to the fact that most communities are guided by people with leadership qualities. Will they not try to convince other residents, not so powerful individuals, to follow their line or reasoning? Section 3 demonstrated the involvement of a (previous) Liberal Frontbencher as well as a businessman, (previously) involved in oil, gas and mineral exploration, as being instrumental in setting up the anti-wind-lobby of the Landscape Guardians. This is an important point because every community exists of leaders and followers. Hindmarsh's (2010) plan regarding facilitating social mapping of local community qualifications and limits, about wind farm location in conjunction with technical mapping of wind resources, seems appropriate. However, the concern here is will such a rational approach work? Where conflict arises, rationality is often not the line of action, as all research on NIMBYism shows. If, for instance, the anticipated or real decrease of the value of the property (rational) against the sense of, and identification with place (nonrational) is weighed up: what is more important to the residents, which issue takes priority,

It is believed that similar arguments can be made when we look at the notion of civic good (Gibson, 2005). For instance, who will publicly fund local political campaigns to establish a wind farm? Developers? The government? The civic good is clearly important, but then the

regions of Australia, he estimates, that "91,760MW installed capacity, using a capacity factor of 34%, would give an annual electricity generation of 273TWhr which would be greater than the total Australian electricity consumption for the 2006-07 year which was 262TWhr" (Clarke, 2008/2011, p. 3).

Considering the data presented in this chapter, Australia's CO2 emissions, Garnaut's advice, the estimates and evidence provided by Clarke and by Diesendorf that wind power could replace coal-fired electricity and therefore would minimize CO2 emissions, it is argued that NIMBYism has to be critically assessed.
