**9. Discussion**

Global warming is increasing and there is scientific evidence (CSIRO, 2009) that the present problems are, at least in part, anthropogenic and that CO2 emissions contribute to global warming. While wind farming has been accepted increasingly in European countries (Damborg, 1997/2003.; Damborg & Krohn, 1998; Johnson & Jacobsson, 2000; Krohn et al, 2009), in Canada and in the United States (Brown, 2000; Firestone et al., 2005), many residents in rural and regional Australia are suspicious (see Diesendorf, 2003/2004; Macintosh & Downie, 2006; Clarke, 2010/2011), questioning the advantages of wind energy and legitimacy of government and developers' proposals (Davis, 2008; Barr, 2009; Jopson, 2010; Hindmarsh, 2010; Strong, 2010; Ryder, 2011). However, several scientists, environmentalists and (some) governments find that Australia needs wind power (Diesendorf, 2003/2004; Clarke, 2010/2011; Combet, 2010; Gillard, 2011), and that it could produce all of its electricity from wind energy (Clarke, 2008/2011). Nevertheless, NIMBYism is powerful and persisting.

Lothian's study (2007) finds that negative visual effects, which are one of the main reasons to oppose wind turbines, could be reduced if scenic locations were excluded. This would interlink with claims that NIMBYism should be part of understanding the complexities of public facility sitings (Johansson & Laike, 2007; Esaiasson, 2010; Glickel, 2011). Wanting to understand NIMBYism, some scholars mention issues of social trust and distrust in governments as a major issue when public facilities are planned (Kasperson et al., 1992; Marquart-Pyatt & Petrzelka, 2008). Improving or alleviating social distrust is important. Australians are unconvinced of politicians' promises: elections take place every three years, politicians' time in office may extend to six years (some times more). Compared to this, citizens tend to plan their lives and places of residence for longer periods of time. Politicians, governments as well as developers have to convince residents in areas of public facility sitings about the advantages of change, i.e. creation of new jobs and reduction of CO2-e; they have to be honest and visionary and not self-interested and short-sighted, i.e. take into account the residents' sense of place.

In order to counteract NIMBYism, scholars point out that environmental aims must be balanced (Haggett & Toke, 2006), and that residents must be empowered and be given a decisive voice (Hindmarsh, 2009). Both these concerns can be related to re-thinking NIMBYism (Devine-Wright, 2009), where place attachment and place identity play the most important part. But there is also the notion of the civic good that needs to be taken into consideration. According to Gibson (2005), the civic good can be achieved by (1) publicly funding local political campaigns to promote an issue; (2) persuading local activists to form associations to counteract those organisations which pursue self-interest; (3) promoting critical scholars and community activists to allocate more of their resources to the development and support of non-profit, alternative media institutions, including community newspapers and radio stations (p. 399).

All of the above issues interlink and are important consideration in relation to CO2 emissions and the advancement of wind energy in Australia, but in what way and how much do they help in understanding NIMBYism? Having considered the main characteristics of NIMBYism, it is argued that the syndrome does not have a rational basis, that it is non-rational, and that we need to assess its validity because the rational consequences include the abandonment or suspension of facilities that could present a cleaner, renewable energy future.

In Australia four projects, worth 477MW of wind power, were abandoned or are suspended in 2010. While only some motives for the abandonment or suspension of these projects could be studied9, this literature review was triggered by objections of people to wind farming in rural and regional Australia. People's attachment to, and identification with place are powerful arguments when opposing the development of a wind farm. The literature shows that environmental disruption causes concerns which can lead to anxiety. Therefore this chapter looked at the most important concerns (biodiversity, reliability, cost, health, aesthetic of the environment) and challenged them. But it must be mentioned that a literature review has its limitations because people and their personal stories are not given a voice. There is always the possibility that personal stories let a researcher be less critical and more understanding. Despite these shortcomings, three important points remain: (1) Australia needs to reduce its CO2 emissions; (2) wind power is one of the most efficient sources of renewable energy at this point in time and could help achieve this task; (3) NIMBYism in Australia requires further research.

We are confronted here with some rational facts (consequences) and with a sense of nonrationality, which makes it challenging to find a way out of the dilemma. All articles on NIMBYism state that improved communication between governments, developers and the public is vital. Hindmarsh (2010) provides some directives how this could be achieved, namely greater empowerment of residents in areas where wind turbines are to be installed. If instigated, will it work? Its allowance for the non-rational factor is not apparent. Consideration also has to be given to the fact that most communities are guided by people with leadership qualities. Will they not try to convince other residents, not so powerful individuals, to follow their line or reasoning? Section 3 demonstrated the involvement of a (previous) Liberal Frontbencher as well as a businessman, (previously) involved in oil, gas and mineral exploration, as being instrumental in setting up the anti-wind-lobby of the Landscape Guardians. This is an important point because every community exists of leaders and followers. Hindmarsh's (2010) plan regarding facilitating social mapping of local community qualifications and limits, about wind farm location in conjunction with technical mapping of wind resources, seems appropriate. However, the concern here is will such a rational approach work? Where conflict arises, rationality is often not the line of action, as all research on NIMBYism shows. If, for instance, the anticipated or real decrease of the value of the property (rational) against the sense of, and identification with place (nonrational) is weighed up: what is more important to the residents, which issue takes priority, will the rational or non-rational argument prevail?

It is believed that similar arguments can be made when we look at the notion of civic good (Gibson, 2005). For instance, who will publicly fund local political campaigns to establish a wind farm? Developers? The government? The civic good is clearly important, but then the

466 International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change

regions of Australia, he estimates, that "91,760MW installed capacity, using a capacity factor of 34%, would give an annual electricity generation of 273TWhr which would be greater than the total Australian electricity consumption for the 2006-07 year which was 262TWhr"

Considering the data presented in this chapter, Australia's CO2 emissions, Garnaut's advice, the estimates and evidence provided by Clarke and by Diesendorf that wind power could replace coal-fired electricity and therefore would minimize CO2 emissions, it is argued that

Global warming is increasing and there is scientific evidence (CSIRO, 2009) that the present problems are, at least in part, anthropogenic and that CO2 emissions contribute to global warming. While wind farming has been accepted increasingly in European countries (Damborg, 1997/2003.; Damborg & Krohn, 1998; Johnson & Jacobsson, 2000; Krohn et al, 2009), in Canada and in the United States (Brown, 2000; Firestone et al., 2005), many residents in rural and regional Australia are suspicious (see Diesendorf, 2003/2004; Macintosh & Downie, 2006; Clarke, 2010/2011), questioning the advantages of wind energy and legitimacy of government and developers' proposals (Davis, 2008; Barr, 2009; Jopson, 2010; Hindmarsh, 2010; Strong, 2010; Ryder, 2011). However, several scientists, environmentalists and (some) governments find that Australia needs wind power (Diesendorf, 2003/2004; Clarke, 2010/2011; Combet, 2010; Gillard, 2011), and that it could produce all of its electricity from wind energy (Clarke,

Lothian's study (2007) finds that negative visual effects, which are one of the main reasons to oppose wind turbines, could be reduced if scenic locations were excluded. This would interlink with claims that NIMBYism should be part of understanding the complexities of public facility sitings (Johansson & Laike, 2007; Esaiasson, 2010; Glickel, 2011). Wanting to understand NIMBYism, some scholars mention issues of social trust and distrust in governments as a major issue when public facilities are planned (Kasperson et al., 1992; Marquart-Pyatt & Petrzelka, 2008). Improving or alleviating social distrust is important. Australians are unconvinced of politicians' promises: elections take place every three years, politicians' time in office may extend to six years (some times more). Compared to this, citizens tend to plan their lives and places of residence for longer periods of time. Politicians, governments as well as developers have to convince residents in areas of public facility sitings about the advantages of change, i.e. creation of new jobs and reduction of CO2-e; they have to be honest and visionary and not self-interested and short-sighted, i.e.

In order to counteract NIMBYism, scholars point out that environmental aims must be balanced (Haggett & Toke, 2006), and that residents must be empowered and be given a decisive voice (Hindmarsh, 2009). Both these concerns can be related to re-thinking NIMBYism (Devine-Wright, 2009), where place attachment and place identity play the most important part. But there is also the notion of the civic good that needs to be taken into consideration. According to Gibson (2005), the civic good can be achieved by (1) publicly funding local political campaigns to promote an issue; (2) persuading local activists to form associations to counteract those organisations which pursue self-interest; (3) promoting critical scholars and community activists to allocate more of their resources to the development and support of non-profit, alternative media institutions, including

(Clarke, 2008/2011, p. 3).

**9. Discussion** 

NIMBYism has to be critically assessed.

2008/2011). Nevertheless, NIMBYism is powerful and persisting.

take into account the residents' sense of place.

community newspapers and radio stations (p. 399).

 9 See Section 3.

Wind Farming and the Not-in-My-Backyard Syndrome: A Literature Review

produce \$100 worth of corn.

(Clarke, 2008, p. 9).

**12. References** 

line.

**11. Acknowledgement** 

rewards from wind energy" is an article written by Brown (August 21, 2000):

Regarding Australia's Challenge in Relation to Climate Change and CO2 Emissions 469

argued by proponents of wind energy is the creation of new jobs in the industry. Employment in this new industry could be an escape from poverty in rural and regional Australia, and it could be the catalyst to welcome wind farming. "Farmers are reaping

Farmers and ranchers in the United States are discovering that they own not only land, but also the wind rights that accompany it. A farmer in Iowa who leases a quarter acre of cropland to the local utility has a site for a wind turbine can typically earn \$2,000 a year in royalties from the electricity produced. In a good year, that same plot can

Just one last thought: Coleby, Miller and Aspinall (2009) find that young people are more accepting of wind turbines than older ones. This then raises the question, do we have to wait another generation to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions? If NIMBYism, as explored in this chapter, persists, Australia may have no option. But that would be a coal-grey future; therefore hope has to prevail that attitudes will change: "We have a larger moral responsibility to reduce our emissions than most other nations and most other people"

The reasonable man adapts himself to the world; the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore all progress depends on the unreasonable man.

George Bernard Show cited in David Clarke's *The Ramblings of a Bush Philosopher*

also like to thank the referees / editors for their advice and recommendations.

expansion. *ABC Ballarat*. Retrieved August 4, 2011, from

Acciona Energy. *Newsletter Waubra Wind Farm*, Edition 15 June 2011.

January 31, 2010, from http://www.nre.vic.gov.au/

Birrell, J.R. (n.d.) *Senate wind farm inquiry*. Retrieved August 3, 2011, from http://senate.aph.gov.au/submissions/committees/viewdocument.

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/05/25.

*Zealand*, 2001-02, Cat. No. 3218.0.

Acciona (n.d.) Project Snapshot *Waubra Wind Farm*.

and Measures. Published On-line.

I am grateful for the assistance provided by Ms Alex Zauner-De Ville and Ms Noelene Milliken. I am indebted to Professor Ian Gray for his thoughts on this chapter. And I would

2008 Australian Coal, *Australian Coal Association*, Retrieved August 5, 2011. Published On-

ABC Australian Broadcasting Corporation (25 May, 2011): Acciona scraps wind farm

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006). *Regional population growth, Australia and New* 

Acciona Energy (2006). *Proposed Newfield wind farm: Social impact statement*. Retrieved

Andrews, G. (2001). *Market based instruments: Australia's experience with trading renewable* 

Berg, C. (2003). *Minimising community opposition to wind farm developments in New Zealand: Opportunities in renewable energy planning.* Wellington: Victoria University.

*energy certificates*. Paper presented at the Workshop on Good Practices in Policies

question arises, whose civic good, and who determines it, which would lead to non-rational arguments. And those who fund the debate, will they not influence the outcome?

The issue of social trust and distrust and the suggested risk communication (Kasperson et al., 1992) also presents some challenges: Who is to be empowered to lead the risk communication? Clearly not every individual can be empowered. Will the community as a whole make a decision? Then we are presented again with leaders and followers and the difficulties described above.

Overall there does not seem to be an easy answer – NIMBYism is and remains a contentious issue; whichever way one looks at it, it is like opening Pandora's Box. An idea to improve or lessen NIMBYism in relation to wind power would be to consider employment opportunities and the escape from poverty. The estimated number of jobs in the world wide wind farm industry is as follows: Germany 90,000; United States 85,000; Spain 40,000; Denmark 25,000; Italy 18,300; United Kingdom 16,000; and Australia 1,600 (IEA, 2009, p. 18). Diesendorf (2003/2004) gives an account of community development and employment, arguing that wind power and other sustainable energy sources can provide more local employment than coal:

Currently wind farms in Australia have about 40% Australian content and create 203 times as many local jobs per kWh generated as coal power. However, as wind power expands, Australian content is expected to rise to 80% and so the number of local jobs per kWh will rise to 4-6 times those of coal. Already job creation is under way: the world's largest wind turbine manufacturer, Vestas, is building a component manufacturing plant in Tasmania (p. 47).

Taking the world-wide estimated employment figures as well as the Australian predictions by Diesendorf into consideration, one should be able to assume that Australia will progress to a clean, renewable future.

Believing in the premise of a politician? This discussion is concluded with the words of an independent member of parliament (Tony Windsor, 2011) who argues that "34,000 new jobs in the renewable energy sector in regional Australia" (p. 2) will be created over the next two decades. Will residents in rural and regional Australia take note?
