**1. Introduction**

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> Let me begin with a personal note. When several Australian newspapers reported about people objecting to the establishment of wind farms in rural and regional Australia, the Notin-my-Backyard syndrome (NIMBYism) entered my thoughts. Knowing that Australians were emitting more than reasonable amounts1 of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere, this literature review was started. It is the result of trying to understand the objections to wind farming. I must admit that I like the turbines, their imposing height, the way they enhance the landscape, and their capacity to produce electricity. In 2002, I was standing under a turbine on the Isle of Fanø in Denmark, it was noisy but not overwhelming, I was in awe, admired a manmade product fitting perfectly into the landscape. Reading years later the objections to wind farming in Australia triggered concern and an interest into researching NIMBYism.

> According to the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) (2009, pp. 1-5) climate change is the greatest ecological, economic and social challenge of our time. Globally, CO2 emissions, temperature and sea levels are rising faster than expected and average temperatures are increasing (CSIRO, 2009, p. 3). These trends are recorded on all continents and in the ocean. "Since the Industrial Revolution global CO2 concentration has risen by 37%" which "is mainly due to fossil-fuel use and land-use change" (CSIRO, 2009: p. 5). CO2 is a contributing factor in the enhanced greenhouse effect which is resulting in climate change.

> Approximately 25% of the CO2 emitted in the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean and another 25% is absorbed by the natural environment on land. In water, CO2 makes the oceans more acidic. Ocean acidification interferes with the formation of shells and corals, and has far reaching implications for the health and productivity of the world's oceans (CSIRO, 2009, p. 5).

> The CSIRO also finds that "the likelihood of observed warming being due to natural causes alone is less than 5%" (p. 5). And they continue:

<sup>1</sup> What constitutes a reasonable amount?

Wind Farming and the Not-in-My-Backyard Syndrome: A Literature Review

weight to arguments in support of the development of wind farming.

In 2008/09 Australia produced 438 million tonnes (Mt) of raw black coal, 334 Mt of black coal was available for the domestic use and for export (2008 Australian Coal). The CSIRO

Coal is, however, a major contributor to the world's greenhouse gas emissions. According to the CSIRO 2203-2011, current power technologies account for more than one third of Australia's emissions alone. This means that, on the one hand, the profitable coal export industry has to be considered and, on the other hand, the environment. Taking a long term view, the risk of further CO2 pollution is high and our options are limited. Clarke, who has researched climate change and Australia's wind energy projects for many years, contemplates the belief of many that 'Australia can't make any difference' and summarises

…coal is Australia's largest export and a major contributor to the national economy. It is the primary fuel for power generation worldwide and provides more than 80% of

Australia only produces about 1.5% of the world's greenhouse gasses. If we were to cut our emissions to nothing tomorrow, it would make very little difference to the world.

Therefore we would be foolish to risk crippling our economy (Clarke, 2008, p. 8). Bond (2009) is more specific than the CSIRO regarding the production of electricity and finds that in 2006/2007, "83% of Australia's electricity is produced using coal" (p. 2).

**2.1 The Australian wind power industry – Some facts** 

Australia's electricity supply (CSIRO 2003-2011).

**2. Findings** 

2003-2011 finds that

their negative attitude as follows:

2Please refer to Section 3 for some examples.

Regarding Australia's Challenge in Relation to Climate Change and CO2 Emissions 453

This literature review relates to wind farms on land and is written from an Australian perspective, including some international comparison. In 2010, four projects (worth 477 MW) were abandoned or suspended in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and in Tasmania2 (Wikipedia; Clean Energy Australia 2010; Clarke, 2008/2010, p. 16). The planning and siting of wind farms often create conflict in the local population. For that reason a look at newspaper articles should set the scene regarding the public's attitudes towards wind turbines. Problems relating to biodiversity (birds and bats are being killed); reliability (wind power can only be used as intermittent source of power); economy (wind turbines are costly but contribute very little to the reduction of CO2); economy (wind power is not costeffective); health (the noise of turbines has adverse affects on residents' health); and the aesthetics of the environment will be discussed. Characteristics of NIMBYism will be studied, and issues that may help to find a solution to the polarised debate will be explored. In order to make sense of the disputes, the connection to, and identification with place will be looked at, and improved collaboration between the public, developers and governments will be considered; so will be trust and social distrust of the community towards governments. Scientific arguments regarding climate change and CO2 emissions will be used to strengthen the claim that changes are necessary. It will be argued that several nonrational theories (relating here to biodiversity, reliability of wind energy, economic costs, health, aesthetics of the environment) are the basis of NIMBYism. These non-rational concepts have very rational consequences, i.e. abandonment or suspension of the project. The discussion around NIMBYism and wind farming is not new but this chapter should add

Evidence of human influence also has been detected in ocean warming, sea-level rise, continental-average temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patterns. This conclusion is consistent with the observed melting of glaciers and ice sheets (CSIRO, 2009, p. 5).

One of the solutions to increased greenhouse gas emissions is the renewable energy of wind power. Wind power is currently the most rapidly growing energy source in the world (Acciona Energy, 2006; BTM Consult ApS, 2009; Firestone, Kempton, Krueger & Loper, 2005, p. 75; Liebmann, 2003, p. 4; Mercer, 2003, p. 10). Wind farms have been established in many countries to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and, at the same time, to increase the production of renewable energy. Wind turbines can be installed onshore and offshore. In spite of positive effects on the environment, i.e. reducing CO2 emissions (see Section 8.), wind farms have been opposed for environmental reasons: Paradoxically, according to Lothian (2008, p. 196), "while addressing one environmental concern, the system is being opposed because of another environmental concern, namely the perceived negative impact on the environment, particularly on landscape quality". There is, however, a strong commitment of many countries to increase the share of renewable energy and this has resulted in a significant increase in the number of wind turbines. The World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) provides a table showing the added capacity of approximately six months (end of 2009 to June 2010):


www.wwindea.org/home/index2.php?option+com\_jce&task=popup&img=imag

Table 1. Wind Power Worldwide June 2010

The table demonstrates that the use of wind power is on the increase overall. The changes in the table refer to a time of approximately six months. Looking at the near past, in the 1990s, Germany had the fastest growth in the industry, followed by Spain, Denmark and India (European Commission, 1997, table 2.2). The German wind farming industry in 2000 was the second largest in the world (Johnson & Jacobsson, 2000, p. 2), generating the highest amount of wind powered energy in the world (Nelson, 2005, p. 8; Reeves & Beck, 2003, p. 9; Rodriguez et al., 2002, p. 1089). The growing trend for Germany has continued (Macintosh & Downie, 2006, p. 1), however, Table 1 demonstrates that China, the United States of America and India have overtaken Germany during the last (at least) six months.

This literature review relates to wind farms on land and is written from an Australian perspective, including some international comparison. In 2010, four projects (worth 477 MW) were abandoned or suspended in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and in Tasmania2 (Wikipedia; Clean Energy Australia 2010; Clarke, 2008/2010, p. 16). The planning and siting of wind farms often create conflict in the local population. For that reason a look at newspaper articles should set the scene regarding the public's attitudes towards wind turbines. Problems relating to biodiversity (birds and bats are being killed); reliability (wind power can only be used as intermittent source of power); economy (wind turbines are costly but contribute very little to the reduction of CO2); economy (wind power is not costeffective); health (the noise of turbines has adverse affects on residents' health); and the aesthetics of the environment will be discussed. Characteristics of NIMBYism will be studied, and issues that may help to find a solution to the polarised debate will be explored. In order to make sense of the disputes, the connection to, and identification with place will be looked at, and improved collaboration between the public, developers and governments will be considered; so will be trust and social distrust of the community towards governments. Scientific arguments regarding climate change and CO2 emissions will be used to strengthen the claim that changes are necessary. It will be argued that several nonrational theories (relating here to biodiversity, reliability of wind energy, economic costs, health, aesthetics of the environment) are the basis of NIMBYism. These non-rational concepts have very rational consequences, i.e. abandonment or suspension of the project. The discussion around NIMBYism and wind farming is not new but this chapter should add

weight to arguments in support of the development of wind farming.
