**4. Institutional innovations: Empowering local communities**

Development projects in the past failed to adequately address real community issues and concerns in agropastoral dry areas in North Africa. Decision-makers and all research and development partners are increasingly aware that "the heart of the rangeland sustainable management" is linked to institutional issues. Indeed, in the past the situation of rangelands was relatively better not only because population pressure and demand for meat were lower, but also because the management of rangelands was more strictly controlled by traditional institutions (*jmaas in Morocco, Myaad in Tunisia*) that enjoyed effective power. Numerous policy and institutional reforms have been carried out in several countries of North Africa. In most cases, policy and institutional reforms weakened pastoral institutions. These institutional reforms can be classified into three main approaches: state appropriation of rangeland resources, strengthening customary tribal claims, and privatization with titling (Ngaido and McCarthy, 2004).

ICARDA and IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development) worked together within the framework of the Mashreq/Maghreb Project to develop and implement a new participatory approach aiming at sustainable development of agropastoral communities in dry areas of the North Africa region. More specifically, it aims to develop participatory methodologies and tools that empower local communities and promote sustainable livelihood and conservation of agropastoral resources in those areas.

A methodology is developed through the joint inputs of all stakeholders including community members, agricultural specialists, extension services, researchers, local institutions, and decision makers. The methodology consists of the following steps: characterization of the community, diagnosis, planning and programming, institutional setup, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. The pillar of the methodology is an effective communication where all stakeholders negotiate community development plan (CDP) on an equal basis and where all sources of knowledge are explored, encompassing both indigenous and research-based knowledge. So far there is little integration of indigenous knowledge into development planning, thus concerned communities are becoming more powerless. It is suggested that development agencies should use indicators extracted from local know-how of agropastors to prepare relief instead of just relying on satellite imagery.

This participatory approach has been accepted and embraced by communities and development agencies in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. It has been documented and disseminated through different channels including: a field manual in English and Arabic, linkage with Karianet network, and specific websites (www.icarda.org; www.mashreqmaghreb.org).

Key lessons from this experience include: (i) participatory characterisation of communities is essential for cooperation and trust among stakeholders; (ii) recognition of local know-how is an important step for successful diagnosis; (iii) the preparation of annual and long-term

Agricultural Technological and Institutional

Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Pakistan, and Mauritania.

environmental services.

(December 2008), pp. 48-50

ISSN. 1111-1992, Sétif, Algérie, 3-5 Mai 2010

Syria. pp. 802-810.

**6. References** 

Innovations for Enhanced Adaptation to Environmental Change in North Africa 79

cultivars, water harvesting and supplementary irrigation, no-tillage practices, efficient feeding of small ruminants including communal rangeland management, utilization of balanced feed blocks, fodder shrubs and cactus, a marvelous multi-purpose crop, and above all the participation and empowerment of rural communities facing the adverse effects of climate change. Most of these innovations have been outscaled to other countries and regions with similar agro-ecologies. Thus, within the framework of FAO-ICARDA International Technical Cooperation Network on Cactus (FAO-ICARDA Cactusnet), cactus technologies have been disseminated to countries in the Near East (Jordan, Iran, Arabian Peninsula), South East Asia (India, Pakistan), Subsaharan Africa (Mauritania, Mozambique), and East Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). Within ICARDA Mashreq-Maghreb project (www.mashreq-maghreb.org), technological options such as feed blocks and fodder shrubs and trees have been adopted in countries of the Near East (Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq) and South East Asia (India, Pakistan). Institutional innovations including the community approach and community development plan have been applied and largely adopted in

The adoption of the improved technologies and institutional innovations and of further upgrade thereof will enable the North African rural communities cope with climate change. However, the recent IPCC projections point to an alarming increase in temperature, an important sea level rise, a general trend of rainfall reduction, and frequent occurrence of extreme events including severe drought and floods. These projections call for a firmer commitment and investment of North African countries and concerned international institutions in scientific innovations to address the worsening of natural resources status and the ensuing threat to food security. Issues to be addressed include (i) modeling climate change effect on a local level to develop more accurate warning systems for better coping with and adaptation to climate change; (ii) use of new biotechnological tools to increase the level and stability of animal and plant productivity encompassing tolerance to drought and heat stress as well as diseases and pests; (iii) developing new fresh water resources through desalination of bountiful sea water using limitless solar energy (iv) developing and promoting socially-acceptable policies on insurance against climatic risks and on water pricing and property rights; (v) North African countries should strive for a fair share of the post-Kyoto and other arrangements for access to the world carbon market and payment for

Abang, M. & Malhotra, R. (2008). Chickpea and Climate Change. *ICARDA Caravan,* No.25.

Alary, V., Nefzaoui A. & El Mourid, M. (2007). How risk influences the adoption of new

Angar, H.; Ben Haj Salah, H. & Ben-Hammouda, M. (2010). Semis Direct et Semis

technologies by farmers in low rainfall areas of North Africa?. In: El-Beltagy, A. M.C. Saxena and Tao Wang (eds). *Human and Nature – Working together for sustainable Development of drylands. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Development of Drylands*, 25-28 February 2006, Beijing, China. ICARDA, Aleppo,

Conventionnel en Tunisie: Les Résultats Agronomiques de 10 Ans de Comparaison. *Actes des 4e Rencontres Méditerranéennes du Semis Direc*t, pp. 9-13,

development plan approved by communities is an efficient tool to mobilize resources and ease project implementation; (iv) not to underestimate the ability of communities to identify appropriate technical solutions, to solve internal conflicts particularly relating to property rights and land use, and the importance of additional-income generating activities; (v) the success and the sustainability of the process depends on the promotion of elected community-based organizations that play a key interface role between communities and other actors (government agencies and decision makers, non government agencies, donors, and other communities).

Promoting community-based organizations and empowerment will support adaptation to climate change (Garforth, 2008) through:


Recent experience of communal rangeland management in Southern Tunisia (IFAD PRODESUD Project) is quite successful. The community-based organizations (GDAs) are built up on socio-territorial units that correspond to the traditional tribe boundaries. They are fully participating in the design and implementation of their integrated local development. The approach involves the real participation of agropastoral communities, in a new bottom-up mode, for the establishment of community development plan (CDP) that reflects the real issues and priority needs of the community. This is developed through the joint inputs of all stakeholders including community members, agricultural specialists, extension services, local administration and state representatives. Best-bet options for technical, institutional and policy issues are jointly identified for implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The community is represented by a formal community-based organization (CBO), directly elected by community members and fully recognized by government authorities as their equal partner for implementation of all actions set out in the jointly developed CDP. This includes such crucial issues as management of communal pasture and rangelands (for example more than 50,000 ha of collective rangelands are put under rest and fully controlled by the communities), as well as the procurement of funds and necessary inputs and facilities, and the independent and transparent contact with all stakeholders and similar CBOs in the region for exchange of relevant information and experiences (Nefzaoui et al., 2007).

#### **5. Conclusions**

In this chapter we reviewed some of the agricultural achievements realized in three North African countries where agriculture depends primarily on rainfed production systems dominated by cereal crops and small ruminant livestock. Successful adopted technologies under unfavorable climate conditions include drought tolerant and disease resistant crop cultivars, water harvesting and supplementary irrigation, no-tillage practices, efficient feeding of small ruminants including communal rangeland management, utilization of balanced feed blocks, fodder shrubs and cactus, a marvelous multi-purpose crop, and above all the participation and empowerment of rural communities facing the adverse effects of climate change. Most of these innovations have been outscaled to other countries and regions with similar agro-ecologies. Thus, within the framework of FAO-ICARDA International Technical Cooperation Network on Cactus (FAO-ICARDA Cactusnet), cactus technologies have been disseminated to countries in the Near East (Jordan, Iran, Arabian Peninsula), South East Asia (India, Pakistan), Subsaharan Africa (Mauritania, Mozambique), and East Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). Within ICARDA Mashreq-Maghreb project (www.mashreq-maghreb.org), technological options such as feed blocks and fodder shrubs and trees have been adopted in countries of the Near East (Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq) and South East Asia (India, Pakistan). Institutional innovations including the community approach and community development plan have been applied and largely adopted in Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Pakistan, and Mauritania.

The adoption of the improved technologies and institutional innovations and of further upgrade thereof will enable the North African rural communities cope with climate change. However, the recent IPCC projections point to an alarming increase in temperature, an important sea level rise, a general trend of rainfall reduction, and frequent occurrence of extreme events including severe drought and floods. These projections call for a firmer commitment and investment of North African countries and concerned international institutions in scientific innovations to address the worsening of natural resources status and the ensuing threat to food security. Issues to be addressed include (i) modeling climate change effect on a local level to develop more accurate warning systems for better coping with and adaptation to climate change; (ii) use of new biotechnological tools to increase the level and stability of animal and plant productivity encompassing tolerance to drought and heat stress as well as diseases and pests; (iii) developing new fresh water resources through desalination of bountiful sea water using limitless solar energy (iv) developing and promoting socially-acceptable policies on insurance against climatic risks and on water pricing and property rights; (v) North African countries should strive for a fair share of the post-Kyoto and other arrangements for access to the world carbon market and payment for environmental services.
