**7. Non communicable disease**

IPCC expects all parts of the planet to experience more heat exposure in the future (IPCC 2007), while the local extent of heating will vary. Increased heat and climate variability will also influence other exposure routes which are moderated by socio-economic status and other variables. Dehydration increases the concentration of calcium and other compounds in the urine, which facilitates the formation of kidney stones (Cramer and Forrest 2006). In addition to kidney stone disease, there is evidence that during heat waves there is an increase in hospitalizations for acute renal failure and other kidney diseases (Kjellstrom et al, u.d)

#### **7.1 Effect of climate change on non communicable disease**

**Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke**: Association between air quality, especially ozone and particulate burdens, and cardiovascular disease appear to be modified by weather and climate. Ozone is also associated with acute myocardial infarction. Particulate matter is associated with a variety of patho-physiological changes including systemic inflammation, deranged coagulation and thrombosis, blood vessel dysfunction and atherosclerotic disease, compromised heart function, deep venous thromboses,95.Increased burden of PM2.5 is associated with increased hospital admissions and mortality from cardiovascular disease, as well as ischemic heart disease. **Neurological:** climate change on ocean health, resulting in increased risks to neurological health from ingestion of or exposure to neurotoxins in seafood and fresh and marine waters. Neurotoxins produced by harmful algal blooms and other marine microorganisms can cause serious illness and death in humans. The most frequent human exposures are via consumption of seafood containing algal toxins, although some toxins may be present in freshwater sources of drinking water, and others may be aerosolized by surf breaking on beaches and then transported by winds to where they can cause respiratory distress in susceptible individuals who breathe them. Because cooking or other means of food preparation do not kill seafood biotoxins, it is essential to identify contaminated seafood before it reaches consumers. **Human Developmental Effects:** climate change could alter normal human development both in the womb and later in life. Food borne illness and food insecurity, both likely outcomes of climate change, may lead to malnutrition. While adult humans exposed to mild famine usually recover quite well when food again becomes plentiful, nutritional reductions to a fetus in the womb appear to have lasting effects throughout life. Climate change effects on food availability and nutritional content could have a marked, multigenerational effect on human development. Certain commercial chemicals present in storage sites or hazardous waste sites can alter human development. Flooding from extreme weather events and sea-level rise are likely to result in the release of some of these chemicals and heavy metals, most likely affecting drinking and recreational waters. Some of these, including mercury and lead, have known negative developmental effects (IWGCCH, u.d).

#### **8. Cancer**

48 International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change

Air pollution can interact with pollen grains, leading to an increased release of antigens

Air pollution can interact with allergen-carrying paucimicronic particles derived from plants. The paucimicronic particles, pollen-originated or not, are able to reach peripheral

Air pollution—in particular ozone, PM, and sulfur dioxide—have been shown to have an inflammatory effect on the airways of susceptible subjects, causing increased permeability, easier penetration of pollen allergens in the mucus membranes, and easier interaction with

There is also evidence that predisposed subjects have increased airway reactivity induced

Some components of air pollution seem to have an adjuvant immunologic effect on IgE synthesis in atopic subjects—in particular, DEPs, which can interact in atmosphere with

Table 1. The rationale for the interrelationship between agents of air pollution and pollen

IPCC expects all parts of the planet to experience more heat exposure in the future (IPCC 2007), while the local extent of heating will vary. Increased heat and climate variability will also influence other exposure routes which are moderated by socio-economic status and other variables. Dehydration increases the concentration of calcium and other compounds in the urine, which facilitates the formation of kidney stones (Cramer and Forrest 2006). In addition to kidney stone disease, there is evidence that during heat waves there is an increase in

**Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke**: Association between air quality, especially ozone and particulate burdens, and cardiovascular disease appear to be modified by weather and climate. Ozone is also associated with acute myocardial infarction. Particulate matter is associated with a variety of patho-physiological changes including systemic inflammation, deranged coagulation and thrombosis, blood vessel dysfunction and atherosclerotic disease, compromised heart function, deep venous thromboses,95.Increased burden of PM2.5 is associated with increased hospital admissions and mortality from cardiovascular disease, as well as ischemic heart disease. **Neurological:** climate change on ocean health, resulting in increased risks to neurological health from ingestion of or exposure to neurotoxins in seafood and fresh and marine waters. Neurotoxins produced by harmful algal blooms and other marine microorganisms can cause serious illness and death in humans. The most frequent human exposures are via consumption of seafood containing algal toxins, although some toxins may be present in freshwater sources of drinking water, and others may be aerosolized by surf breaking on beaches and then transported by winds to where they can cause respiratory distress in susceptible individuals who breathe them. Because cooking or other means of food preparation do not kill seafood biotoxins, it is essential to identify contaminated seafood before it reaches consumers. **Human Developmental Effects:** climate change could alter normal human development both in the womb and later in life. Food

hospitalizations for acute renal failure and other kidney diseases (Kjellstrom et al, u.d)

by air pollution and increased bronchial responsiveness to inhaled pollen allergens.

characterized by modified allergenicity.

cells of the immune system.

pollens or paucimicronic particles.

**7. Non communicable disease** 

airways with inhaled air, inducing asthma in sensitized subjects.

allergens in inducing respiratory allergy (Shea et al, 2008).

**7.1 Effect of climate change on non communicable disease** 

Since last 30 years there has been concern that anthropogenic damage to the earth's stratospheric ozone layer will lead to an increase of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the earth's surface, with a consequent adverse impact on human health, especially to the skin. More recently, there has been an increased awareness of the interactions between ozone depletion and climate change (global warming), which could also impact on human exposure to terrestrial UV. The most serious effect of changing UV exposure of human skin is the potential rise in incidence of skin cancers. Climate change, which is predicted to lead to an increased frequency of extreme temperature events and high summer temperatures. This could impact on human UV exposure by encouraging people to spend more time in the sun. While future social trends remain uncertain, it is likely that over this century behavior associated with climate change, rather than ozone depletion, will be the largest determinant of sun exposure, and consequent impact on skin cancer (Diffey, 2004).

#### **9. Mental health**

Climate change has potential to influence mental health and behavior. It is observed that those with lower socioeconomic standing are more likely to choose to relocate permanently following a devastating event, often due to limited resources to rebuild property and restore livelihood. In addition, people will continue to experience place-based distress caused by the effects of climate change due to involuntary migration or the loss of connection to one's home environment, a phenomenon called "Solastalgia". (IWGCCH)

Climatic changes may have a significant impact on various dimensions of mental health and well-being. India has been witnessing high incidence of for cotton farmers' deaths/suicides since 1998. The socioeconomic-political factors emerge as very strong determinants of deaths, given the occupational work environment. Also there is decreasing yield of cotton over the years resulting in loss of revenue for the farmers leading them to mental distress. (Patil, 2002)

Violent crime may be exacerbated during heat waves because more stress hormones are released when people are exposed to excessive heat (simister & Cooper, 2004). More alcohol and drugs may be consumed during heat waves, and more people may seek help for their psychiatric problems during these periods (Bulbena et al, 2006). Drought appears to contribute to a variety of mental health effects, including more stress, grief, and hopelessness as well a sense of solastalgia, which describes a palpable sense of dislocation and loss people feel when they perceive changes to their local environment are pervasively harmful (Sartore et al, 2007).Conflict among people may be one of the hallmarks of climate

Climate Change and Health Effects 51

Ironically, the most serious victims of climate change are also the ones who do not have a voice in the mitigation of the problem. Therefore, the implementation of policy becomes deeply ethical. Human activity has already resulted in the loss of many thousands of species and the trend will only continue. Going back to the economic arguments, placing an economic value on the existence of a species or an ecosystem is not viable and as such economic arguments fail to be effective. Trying to fix an ethical problem with an economic solution is simply deficient (Helix, 2011). Ethics of global warming emphasizes the need to address concerns about climate change in a responsible way that improves conditions for the poor. The Kyoto climate treaty could cost the world community \$1 trillion a year –five times the estimated price of providing sanitation and clean drinking water to poor developing countries, thereby preventing millions of deaths each year (Spencer et al, 2005).

There are three aspects of fairness vis-à-vis climate change: what is a fair cost allocation to prevent further global warming; what is a fair cost allocation to cope with the social consequences of the global warming that will not, in fact, be avoided; and; what is a fair allocation of greenhouse gases emissions over the long term and during the transition to long-term allocation? Helm lists five aspects of equity in climate change ethics: international equity in coping with the impacts of climate change and associated risks; international equity in efforts to limit climate change; equity and social considerations within countries;

Bio fuels have been defined as any type of liquid or gaseous fuel that can be produced from biomass and used as a substitute for fossil fuels (Giampietro et al.1997). There have been increasing efforts substitute gasoline and disel by renewable transport bio-fuels that come in the form of ethanol and bio diesel (Davidson, 2003). However in sudden increasing reliance

Emissions may be reduced, but added crop production may affect the ability of the

 Environmentalists often value low-intensity crop production as it causes less environmental degradation and uses fewer fertilizers and fossil fuels. Higher intensity

crop production would allow for greater output and less land transformation. Though climate change affects biodiversity, the land use associated with large-scale bio fuel production has the potential to devastate ecosystems, especially in poor countries. Finally, a shift to bio fuels will result in rural economic development. This may have

 Should we develop bio fuels if their production could be detrimental to the poor? Should we really be developing low intensity energy if it results in the destruction of

Should we only be focusing on the ecological after effects of climate change rather than

Philosophers should take the lead in exposing the fallacy that economic growth is any longer the key to human flourishing in wealthy industrial democracies. We should emphasize the need to pursue intellectual/spiritual/personal/relationship growth rather than increased

**10.1 Mitigation, adaptation, and intergenerational equity** 

equity in international processes; and, equity among generations

on biofuel in itself can have implication on climate change as follows.

world's poor to feed themselves through increased demand.

implications for the urban economy.

**10.2 Moral angle to climate change** 

more natural areas than high intensity energy?

the land impacts created by potential energy systems?

Should we consider potential effects on rural and urban economies?

change's severe weather, which can displace thousands or millions and lead to those people competing with others for scarce resources (Abbott, 2008). While many people have shortterm reactions to extreme natural disasters—including grief, anger, anxiety, and depression—persistent post-traumatic stress may be the hallmark of climate change, as was demonstrated after Hurricane Katrina (Galea et al, 2007).One study showed that mental illness doubled after Hurricane Katrina (Kessler et al, 2006). One year after Hurricane Katrina, exposed children were four times more likely than before the storm to be depressed or anxious and twice as likely to have behavioral problems (Abramson et al, 2007). Other psychological problems, including family dysfunction, difficulties at work, increased child misbehavior, a sense of lost identity, and more may result from experiences of the extreme disasters that climate change is likely to bring (Bourque et al, 2006). Emotional distress and anxiety will be among the hallmarks of climate change and its effects, and disadvantaged communities are among those to be most harmed (Fritze et al, 2008).

The association between acute psychosis and climatic variation is known, especially in tropical countries. Studies from tropical countries like India suggest an increased prevalence of acute psychosis following viral fever, especially in winter. The hospital admission rates for schizophrenia and "schizoaffective" patients are clearly increased in summer and fall respectively, as reported in an 11-year study from Israel. Schizophrenia patients' mean monthly admission rates correlated with the mean maximal monthly environmental temperature, indicating that a persistently high environmental temperature may be a contributing factor for psychotic exacerbation in schizophrenia patients and their consequent admission to mental hospitals. Around half the children and adolescents exposed to the 'supercyclone' in the state of Orissa in India reported symptoms of the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) syndrome of different severity even after one year. Drought affects family relationships. Stress, worry and the rate of suicide increase. The phenomenon of farmers' suicides in India is a typical example of the consequences of climatic vagaries in poor, predominantly agrarian economies (Chand, 2008)
