**10. Ethics**

Anthropogenic climate change entails important consequences for international equity because both the causes of climate change and its impacts are unequally distributed across (and within) nations. The equity implications of climate change are attracting increasing attention because a comprehensive international agreement on climate change will only be agreed upon if it is considered fair by all parties to the UNFCCC. Therefore, the distribution of mitigation and adaptation costs across countries needs to consider their responsibility for climate change as well as their capacity to act, and the allocation of funds for adaptation need to consider, among others, their vulnerability to climate change. Looking at individual sectors, the equity implications of climate change are most pronounced for food security. Low-emission countries are, in general, more adversely impacted (in terms of projected future yield changes of staple crops), more exposed (in terms of the share of agriculture in gross domestic product and labor force), and less able to cope with adverse impacts (in terms of the current level of under nutrition)... The analysis for human health also implies that those least responsible for climate change will be most affected by its adverse impacts Thus, countries with low (fossil) emissions are not only least responsible for climate change, but they generally have lower socio-economic capacity to cope with adverse impacts of climate change (Fussel, 2009).

change's severe weather, which can displace thousands or millions and lead to those people competing with others for scarce resources (Abbott, 2008). While many people have shortterm reactions to extreme natural disasters—including grief, anger, anxiety, and depression—persistent post-traumatic stress may be the hallmark of climate change, as was demonstrated after Hurricane Katrina (Galea et al, 2007).One study showed that mental illness doubled after Hurricane Katrina (Kessler et al, 2006). One year after Hurricane Katrina, exposed children were four times more likely than before the storm to be depressed or anxious and twice as likely to have behavioral problems (Abramson et al, 2007). Other psychological problems, including family dysfunction, difficulties at work, increased child misbehavior, a sense of lost identity, and more may result from experiences of the extreme disasters that climate change is likely to bring (Bourque et al, 2006). Emotional distress and anxiety will be among the hallmarks of climate change and its effects, and disadvantaged

The association between acute psychosis and climatic variation is known, especially in tropical countries. Studies from tropical countries like India suggest an increased prevalence of acute psychosis following viral fever, especially in winter. The hospital admission rates for schizophrenia and "schizoaffective" patients are clearly increased in summer and fall respectively, as reported in an 11-year study from Israel. Schizophrenia patients' mean monthly admission rates correlated with the mean maximal monthly environmental temperature, indicating that a persistently high environmental temperature may be a contributing factor for psychotic exacerbation in schizophrenia patients and their consequent admission to mental hospitals. Around half the children and adolescents exposed to the 'supercyclone' in the state of Orissa in India reported symptoms of the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) syndrome of different severity even after one year. Drought affects family relationships. Stress, worry and the rate of suicide increase. The phenomenon of farmers' suicides in India is a typical example of the consequences of

Anthropogenic climate change entails important consequences for international equity because both the causes of climate change and its impacts are unequally distributed across (and within) nations. The equity implications of climate change are attracting increasing attention because a comprehensive international agreement on climate change will only be agreed upon if it is considered fair by all parties to the UNFCCC. Therefore, the distribution of mitigation and adaptation costs across countries needs to consider their responsibility for climate change as well as their capacity to act, and the allocation of funds for adaptation need to consider, among others, their vulnerability to climate change. Looking at individual sectors, the equity implications of climate change are most pronounced for food security. Low-emission countries are, in general, more adversely impacted (in terms of projected future yield changes of staple crops), more exposed (in terms of the share of agriculture in gross domestic product and labor force), and less able to cope with adverse impacts (in terms of the current level of under nutrition)... The analysis for human health also implies that those least responsible for climate change will be most affected by its adverse impacts Thus, countries with low (fossil) emissions are not only least responsible for climate change, but they generally have lower socio-economic capacity to cope with adverse impacts of

communities are among those to be most harmed (Fritze et al, 2008).

climatic vagaries in poor, predominantly agrarian economies (Chand, 2008)

**10. Ethics** 

climate change (Fussel, 2009).

Ironically, the most serious victims of climate change are also the ones who do not have a voice in the mitigation of the problem. Therefore, the implementation of policy becomes deeply ethical. Human activity has already resulted in the loss of many thousands of species and the trend will only continue. Going back to the economic arguments, placing an economic value on the existence of a species or an ecosystem is not viable and as such economic arguments fail to be effective. Trying to fix an ethical problem with an economic solution is simply deficient (Helix, 2011). Ethics of global warming emphasizes the need to address concerns about climate change in a responsible way that improves conditions for the poor. The Kyoto climate treaty could cost the world community \$1 trillion a year –five times the estimated price of providing sanitation and clean drinking water to poor developing countries, thereby preventing millions of deaths each year (Spencer et al, 2005).

### **10.1 Mitigation, adaptation, and intergenerational equity**

There are three aspects of fairness vis-à-vis climate change: what is a fair cost allocation to prevent further global warming; what is a fair cost allocation to cope with the social consequences of the global warming that will not, in fact, be avoided; and; what is a fair allocation of greenhouse gases emissions over the long term and during the transition to long-term allocation? Helm lists five aspects of equity in climate change ethics: international equity in coping with the impacts of climate change and associated risks; international equity in efforts to limit climate change; equity and social considerations within countries; equity in international processes; and, equity among generations

Bio fuels have been defined as any type of liquid or gaseous fuel that can be produced from biomass and used as a substitute for fossil fuels (Giampietro et al.1997). There have been increasing efforts substitute gasoline and disel by renewable transport bio-fuels that come in the form of ethanol and bio diesel (Davidson, 2003). However in sudden increasing reliance on biofuel in itself can have implication on climate change as follows.


#### **10.2 Moral angle to climate change**

Philosophers should take the lead in exposing the fallacy that economic growth is any longer the key to human flourishing in wealthy industrial democracies. We should emphasize the need to pursue intellectual/spiritual/personal/relationship growth rather than increased

Climate Change and Health Effects 53

and human behavior all of which have direct relation to climate change. To detect and respond to the changes in the infectious disease epidemiology caused by the climate change will require strengthening of the public health infrastructure and ensuring increased surveillance for diseases most likely to be influenced by climate with particular attention to those with potentially large public health impacts. Climate change together with other factors can have serious implication on food security consequently resulting in Malnutrition. Agriculture is currently seen by many development experts including economists and policy makers as a sector that can make a significant contribution to the alleviation and mitigation of poverty in the medium term alongside the growth in non-agricultural sectors. The greatest challenges of the climate change in the coming years will be to cater to needs of

The risk of non communicable diseases (NCDs) are seen to increase following climate change through number of mechanisms by which increasing population heat exposure and other environmental changes related to global climate change may affect NCDs causing acute or chronic health impacts. Cardiovascular, renal and respiratory diseases may be particularly affected, and people in low and middle income countries are at particular risk due to limited resources for prevention. It follows that in the climate change and health evaluations and action plans a greater focus on NCDs is warranted. The burden of mental health consequences need to be studied from several dimensions: psychological distress per se; consequences of psychological distress including proneness to physical diseases as well as suicide; and psychological resilience and its role in dealing effectively with the aftermath of disasters. When these events happen, people with pre-established mental illnesses often

Climate change throws larger ethical and moral dilemmas on us as human beings since we have larger responsibility towards our other fellow co-habitants of this lone planet that can support life in the entire universe. While climate changes throws up difficult moral and ethical questions it is important to develop a normative framework of justice for the international-level funding of adaptation to climate change within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) architecture. The distribution of power should assure that every party is able to make its interest count in every negotiating stage. According to this principle, the voice of weaker countries in the international regime on adaptation funding must be assured the same weight as that of the developed world. There needs to be guidelines providing for consumption, and hence production, imperatives and choices driving the environmental pressures behind climate change. Climate change may affect our natural resource supplies in terms of quality, quantity and availability. Study after study points to something many people don't want to acknowledge: that we can't continue our present path, and new technologies alone cannot prevent uncontrollable global warming. New thinking and behavior are essential. Without fundamental shifts in our assumptions, beliefs and practices, it is clear we are on a collision course with the planet. Recognition of the existence of the problem is the first step towards solution, rather than dismissing global climate change as conspiracy theory or hype created by environmentalists. It is important that we have these extreme events on our surveillance radar and verify them for being potential pieces of evidence from India for global climate change. Mitigation measure for reducing health effects due to climate change present phenomenal operational challenges. Unlike in infectious diseases, where there is genuine desire for disease eradication by the affected countries, commitment to efforts to international agreements to reduce green house gas effect give rise to dynamics that are entirely different. There are corporate forces that are

growing demands to global food in the milieu of climate change.

have more extreme difficulty coping than the rest of the population.

wealth, if we hope to live better lives. Environmental philosophers should also deal honestly with population issues, something we have rarely done in the recent past. At a minimum, we should acknowledge the role population growth plays in environmental destruction, rather than continuing to sweep this unpleasant fact under the rug. We also need to begin to bring "growth is bad" into politics, as well. It is difficult to see how this might be accomplished, however, at least from an American vantage point. For Americans, economic growth is not one goal among many, or a by-product of some more fundamental goal. It is the primary goal of our society, organizing much of our activity, individually and collectively.

Studies have repeatedly shown that while increasing wealth in poor countries does augment happiness, once a society becomes sufficiently prosperous, further increases in wealth no longer boost subjective wellbeing. Throughout the world, the cutoff line seems to be around \$10,000, far below the average American income. Meanwhile, psychological studies show that a materialistic outlook is actually an impediment to individuals achieving happiness (Lane 1998, Kasser 2002, Kasser 2006). This is partly because such an outlook interferes with highly valuing people, and good relationships with spouses, friends and co-workers turn out to be very important in securing happiness. All in all, there is little evidence that doubling our wealth will increase Americans' happiness or flourishing. Values and ethics have a strong influence upon the behavioral outcomes that are manifest as the driving forces behind environmental pressures. Although this perspective underplays the structural constraints upon behavior, the influence of beliefs and values can be seen to operate via the configuration of goals, wants, needs, intent and choices. There needs to be consideration of human welfare as the key objective of both the human economy. The misguided nature of existing consumer culture beliefs about what will bring welfare probably represents the core issue in this analysis. Maximum consumption via material good accumulation, and derived services, drives economic and lifestyle choices and is the natural economic (if not the social) outcome of a belief system based on the principle that the external world is the ultimate source of happiness. The accumulation frenzy has required, and resulted in, prodigious natural resource extraction and global labor force exploitation powered largely by the capabilities endowed by fossil fuel energy. The extensive biophysical intervention associated with fossil carbon has led to the looming problems of climate change. (Philos, 2010).

The Middle Way describes the best approach to life as the "golden mean" – a concept shared in various philosophical strands (Marinoff 2007). This is a balanced approach in which basic needs and wants, that genuinely enhance welfare, can and should be satisfied (for all people). This would naturally cover food, clothing, warmth, shelter, and most ecological services as well as psychological security from social and community based needs. Alternately, extremes are avoided and excessive attachment and accumulation is inimical to the three spheres, and individual wellbeing and spiritual progress. The key process is to break and close the endless wants satisfaction circular gap by realization of the heedless nature of clinging to 'tamha' (desire) as a source of wellbeing (Griffith u.d).

#### **11. Conclusion**

Climate and weather are two of the most important factors in the emergence of infectious disease in humans. Extreme climate events are expected to become more frequent in the coming years with climate change. The natural history of disease transmission, particularly transmission by arthropods, involves the interplay of a multitude of interacting factors that defy simplistic analysis. The principal determinants are politics, economics, human ecology

wealth, if we hope to live better lives. Environmental philosophers should also deal honestly with population issues, something we have rarely done in the recent past. At a minimum, we should acknowledge the role population growth plays in environmental destruction, rather than continuing to sweep this unpleasant fact under the rug. We also need to begin to bring "growth is bad" into politics, as well. It is difficult to see how this might be accomplished, however, at least from an American vantage point. For Americans, economic growth is not one goal among many, or a by-product of some more fundamental goal. It is the primary goal of

Studies have repeatedly shown that while increasing wealth in poor countries does augment happiness, once a society becomes sufficiently prosperous, further increases in wealth no longer boost subjective wellbeing. Throughout the world, the cutoff line seems to be around \$10,000, far below the average American income. Meanwhile, psychological studies show that a materialistic outlook is actually an impediment to individuals achieving happiness (Lane 1998, Kasser 2002, Kasser 2006). This is partly because such an outlook interferes with highly valuing people, and good relationships with spouses, friends and co-workers turn out to be very important in securing happiness. All in all, there is little evidence that doubling our wealth will increase Americans' happiness or flourishing. Values and ethics have a strong influence upon the behavioral outcomes that are manifest as the driving forces behind environmental pressures. Although this perspective underplays the structural constraints upon behavior, the influence of beliefs and values can be seen to operate via the configuration of goals, wants, needs, intent and choices. There needs to be consideration of human welfare as the key objective of both the human economy. The misguided nature of existing consumer culture beliefs about what will bring welfare probably represents the core issue in this analysis. Maximum consumption via material good accumulation, and derived services, drives economic and lifestyle choices and is the natural economic (if not the social) outcome of a belief system based on the principle that the external world is the ultimate source of happiness. The accumulation frenzy has required, and resulted in, prodigious natural resource extraction and global labor force exploitation powered largely by the capabilities endowed by fossil fuel energy. The extensive biophysical intervention associated

with fossil carbon has led to the looming problems of climate change. (Philos, 2010).

nature of clinging to 'tamha' (desire) as a source of wellbeing (Griffith u.d).

**11. Conclusion** 

The Middle Way describes the best approach to life as the "golden mean" – a concept shared in various philosophical strands (Marinoff 2007). This is a balanced approach in which basic needs and wants, that genuinely enhance welfare, can and should be satisfied (for all people). This would naturally cover food, clothing, warmth, shelter, and most ecological services as well as psychological security from social and community based needs. Alternately, extremes are avoided and excessive attachment and accumulation is inimical to the three spheres, and individual wellbeing and spiritual progress. The key process is to break and close the endless wants satisfaction circular gap by realization of the heedless

Climate and weather are two of the most important factors in the emergence of infectious disease in humans. Extreme climate events are expected to become more frequent in the coming years with climate change. The natural history of disease transmission, particularly transmission by arthropods, involves the interplay of a multitude of interacting factors that defy simplistic analysis. The principal determinants are politics, economics, human ecology

our society, organizing much of our activity, individually and collectively.

and human behavior all of which have direct relation to climate change. To detect and respond to the changes in the infectious disease epidemiology caused by the climate change will require strengthening of the public health infrastructure and ensuring increased surveillance for diseases most likely to be influenced by climate with particular attention to those with potentially large public health impacts. Climate change together with other factors can have serious implication on food security consequently resulting in Malnutrition. Agriculture is currently seen by many development experts including economists and policy makers as a sector that can make a significant contribution to the alleviation and mitigation of poverty in the medium term alongside the growth in non-agricultural sectors. The greatest challenges of the climate change in the coming years will be to cater to needs of growing demands to global food in the milieu of climate change.

The risk of non communicable diseases (NCDs) are seen to increase following climate change through number of mechanisms by which increasing population heat exposure and other environmental changes related to global climate change may affect NCDs causing acute or chronic health impacts. Cardiovascular, renal and respiratory diseases may be particularly affected, and people in low and middle income countries are at particular risk due to limited resources for prevention. It follows that in the climate change and health evaluations and action plans a greater focus on NCDs is warranted. The burden of mental health consequences need to be studied from several dimensions: psychological distress per se; consequences of psychological distress including proneness to physical diseases as well as suicide; and psychological resilience and its role in dealing effectively with the aftermath of disasters. When these events happen, people with pre-established mental illnesses often have more extreme difficulty coping than the rest of the population.

Climate change throws larger ethical and moral dilemmas on us as human beings since we have larger responsibility towards our other fellow co-habitants of this lone planet that can support life in the entire universe. While climate changes throws up difficult moral and ethical questions it is important to develop a normative framework of justice for the international-level funding of adaptation to climate change within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) architecture. The distribution of power should assure that every party is able to make its interest count in every negotiating stage. According to this principle, the voice of weaker countries in the international regime on adaptation funding must be assured the same weight as that of the developed world. There needs to be guidelines providing for consumption, and hence production, imperatives and choices driving the environmental pressures behind climate change. Climate change may affect our natural resource supplies in terms of quality, quantity and availability. Study after study points to something many people don't want to acknowledge: that we can't continue our present path, and new technologies alone cannot prevent uncontrollable global warming. New thinking and behavior are essential. Without fundamental shifts in our assumptions, beliefs and practices, it is clear we are on a collision course with the planet.

Recognition of the existence of the problem is the first step towards solution, rather than dismissing global climate change as conspiracy theory or hype created by environmentalists. It is important that we have these extreme events on our surveillance radar and verify them for being potential pieces of evidence from India for global climate change. Mitigation measure for reducing health effects due to climate change present phenomenal operational challenges. Unlike in infectious diseases, where there is genuine desire for disease eradication by the affected countries, commitment to efforts to international agreements to reduce green house gas effect give rise to dynamics that are entirely different. There are corporate forces that are

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#### **12. References**


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**12. References** 


**4** 

*Tunisia* 

**Agricultural Technological and Institutional** 

**Innovations for Enhanced Adaptation to** 

*International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)* 

North Africa typically is a dry region, comprising the countries of Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Libya, where four subregions may be easily distinguished, namely (i) a northern subhumid coastal subregion, bordering the Mediterranean sea (and the Atlantic Ocean for western Morocco), where average annual rainfall is relatively high, generally above 500 mm and where soils are relatively good for farming; (ii) a semi-arid elevated subregion flanking the first subregion from the southern side, from which it is separated by the Atlas mountains and where rainfall is around 300-500 mm, and soils are light calcareous silt-loam; it is bordered on the southern side by (iii) an arid, lower-altitude subregion, with silt-sandy soils and an average rainfall of 100-300 mm; and (iv) Sahara desert subregion covering the largest part of the countries. Libya is predominantly (90%) desert land, except for a narrow coastal area where some agriculture is practiced. Therefore, reference in this chapter will be mainly made to the 3 countries of Algeria,

North Africa is marked by an acute water scarcity, combined with a highly variable Mediterranean climate. While the average world per capita share of fresh water is 7000 cubic meter (m3), all three North African countries are below the water poverty threshold of 1000 m3 (Table 1). Agriculture uses the largest share (up to 80%) of available water resources in North Africa where rainfed cropping predominates. The scarcity of natural water resources, combined with the highly variable and generally very low rainfall in most of the region explain in part the low agricultural productivity, especially of key crop commodities, and the reliance of North African countries on food imports to meet their growing national demands; this is especially true for Algeria that has the largest population, and the lowest agricultural contribution to country GDP and to total employment. Water scarcity is further exacerbated by the competition for water from domestic and industrial uses, and the increasing population and urbanization. Cereal crops, mainly wheat and barley, are the major crop commodities grown in North Africa, but their contribution to national food security and household income remains low

**1. Introduction** 

Morocco and Tunisia.

(Table 1).

**Environmental Change in North Africa** 

Ali Nefzaoui, Habib Ketata and Mohammed El Mourid

 *North Africa Program, Tunis,* 

