Preface

Since the mid-twentieth century, accelerators and colliders have led the development of science and technology in fields of space, medicine, and energy.

Understanding the applications of existing accelerators and colliders with different energies is very important for understanding developments in fundamental or advanced science and technology, such as exploration of the subatomic world, interaction of particles, structure of matter, and medical and energetic radioisotope productions. This book takes into account the currently available types of accelerators and colliders, like linear and circular accelerators and colliders, and their many applications as have been presented in scientific publications. In addition, the book also discusses those accelerators and colliders currently under construction and investigation.

The first chapter provides a short introduction to accelerators and colliders across the world, while the second chapter presents applications for production of the medical radionuclide Ir-192, which is used in brachytherapy. The third chapter explains vacuum systems as essential parts of accelerators and colliders and reviews the key technologies involved in optimizing vacuum system designs with a focus on high-energy, high-intensity, and high-luminosity accelerators and colliders. The fourth chapter defines advanced collider systems and includes a novel scheme of a gas-filled capillary accelerator driven by a laser pulse formed from two-mode mixing of capillary eigenmodes and proposes a laser-plasma linear collider. The fifth chapter presents theoretical calculations of the masses of elementary fermions and a classification of elementary particles over all space and temporal dimensions, including the theoretical values of masses for all the elementary fermions (electrons, muons and taus; all quarks and all neutrinos). The last chapter is a review of elementary particles, Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), and strong interactions in QCD theory via gluon exchange between quark–antiquark-producing mesons.

Each chapter in the book contributes sophisticated knowledge about accelerators and colliders and their crucial applications for current and forthcoming technology. I would like to thank the authors for their contributions. I am also grateful to IntechOpen Service Manager Ms. Lada Bozic for her patience and support.

> **Dr. Ozan Artun** Associate Professor, Zonguldak Bülent Ecevit University, Department of Physics, Division of Nuclear Physics, Zonguldak, Turkey

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productions (**Figure 3**) [2].

**Chapter 1**

*Ozan Artun*

**1. Introduction**

and Colliders

Introductory Chapter: Accelerators

Accelerators are devices that may repel charged particles such as protons and electrons near the speed of light. The charged particles are collided either on targets or towards other particles in the opposite directions. Accelerators utilize electromagnetic fields to accelerate the charged particles, and radio-frequency cavities increase the particle beams as magnet in accelerators focus the beams and curves to their trajectory. There are significant properties of an accelerator according to the aim of usage, e.g., the energy of collisions and type of particles. Therefore, the number of accelerators in operation around the world exceed 30,000. It is obvious that the need of understanding the nature and determination of nature's laws in the subatomic dimension have been provided by accelerators especially in particle physics, because the developments in particle accelerators and particle detectors ensure attractive opportunities for great scientific advances [1, 2]. In addition to researches in physics, the particle accelerators are used by commercial purposes, some of which are the production of radioactive sources in cancer treatment and medical imaging, sterilizing in medical hardware and food, energetic radioisotope production, production of semiconductors for electronic systems, etc. [3–8].

For those purposes, different accelerators as linear and circular types are available all over the world. A linear accelerator (linac) includes merely accelerating structures as the charged particles do not need to be rotated, and linacs exclusively utilize from one acceleration pass. This situation leads to increasing the length of the accelerator to reach high-energy levels. To accelerate the ions, linacs have an accelerating tube including a number of electrodes, where a high-frequency alternating voltage and ions are accelerated in the gap between the electrodes in suitable voltage [1, 2], for example, Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC), which is a 3.2-kmlong electron-positron collider [9], and the proton accelerator with 800 MeV in the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE) [10] as shown in **Figures 1** and **2**. On the other hand, the particles in circular accelerators rotate the same circuit to reach energy range that are wanted due to getting an energy boost at each turn. However, to keep particles in their circular orbit, powerful magnetic field must be provided by device [1] such as cyclotron and synchrotron*.* Cyclotrons are the well-known and the most successful accelerators. They accelerate the ions by a radio-frequency (RF) electrical field and have a magnetic field to constrain the ions to move in spiral path. The cyclotrons are used in nuclear medicine and radioisotope

The ion energies accelerated in cyclotron do not reach high-energy levels and do not have suitable structure to collide two particles. However, a synchrotron can explore higher and higher energies and can become larger and larger because the radius of an accelerator is connected to the energy, feasibility, and cost. The synchrotrons may overcome the energy limitations of cyclotrons. The acceleration

## **Chapter 1**
