Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Applications

**3**

**Chapter 1**

**Abstract**

and then conclusion.

**1. Introduction**

environmental pollutants

neurotoxic disorders [4].

Modern Trends in Uses of

Nanoparticles and Their

*Salah Abdelbary and Hadeer Abdelfattah*

Different Wastes to Produce

Environmental Applications

Wastes are produced at large amounts all over the world. These wastes cause a variety of problems to the ecosystem, plants, animals, and humans. In this chapter, we discuss the wastes, types of wastes, sources of wastes, and problems related to wastes, especially health-related problems. Then we discuss agricultural wastes and how we can synthesize different nanoparticles from them. Also, we discuss industrial wastes and different nanoparticles synthesized from them. Additionally, we discuss fruit wastes and production of different nanoparticles and also food wastes and their uses in nanoparticle syntheses. Also, we can use other wastes to produce nanoparticles. In applications section, we discuss the use of different nanoparticles produced in agriculture, removal of heavy metals and pollutants from environment, industry and finally medical applications. We will finish our chapter with the topic of healthy and safe synthesis of nanoparticles produced by different wastes

**Keywords:** wastes, nano-cellulose, metal oxide nanoparticles, nano-carbon and

Wastes are unwanted, unused or useless, and disposed of after primary use. On the other hand, a product in the product can be a collective product with small measures. They are disposed of or are intended for demolition or are required to be demolished in accordance with the provisions of national law [1]. Waste materials can be turned into products or resources by innovations that increase the value of waste products above zero. Waste can also be created during raw material extraction or recycling into intermediate and final products [2]. Also, the waste is solid or gaseous, and it is chemically toxic or harmful, esthetically offensive, or radioactive. Some waste involves only temporary repression, while others can be isolated indefinitely [3]. The list of potential health problems that are important in the context of hazardous waste exposure was presented by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases and includes birth faults and reproductive complaints, cancers, immune illnesses, renal and liver dysfunction, respiratory diseases, and

### **Chapter 1**

## Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental Applications

*Salah Abdelbary and Hadeer Abdelfattah*

### **Abstract**

Wastes are produced at large amounts all over the world. These wastes cause a variety of problems to the ecosystem, plants, animals, and humans. In this chapter, we discuss the wastes, types of wastes, sources of wastes, and problems related to wastes, especially health-related problems. Then we discuss agricultural wastes and how we can synthesize different nanoparticles from them. Also, we discuss industrial wastes and different nanoparticles synthesized from them. Additionally, we discuss fruit wastes and production of different nanoparticles and also food wastes and their uses in nanoparticle syntheses. Also, we can use other wastes to produce nanoparticles. In applications section, we discuss the use of different nanoparticles produced in agriculture, removal of heavy metals and pollutants from environment, industry and finally medical applications. We will finish our chapter with the topic of healthy and safe synthesis of nanoparticles produced by different wastes and then conclusion.

**Keywords:** wastes, nano-cellulose, metal oxide nanoparticles, nano-carbon and environmental pollutants

### **1. Introduction**

Wastes are unwanted, unused or useless, and disposed of after primary use. On the other hand, a product in the product can be a collective product with small measures. They are disposed of or are intended for demolition or are required to be demolished in accordance with the provisions of national law [1]. Waste materials can be turned into products or resources by innovations that increase the value of waste products above zero. Waste can also be created during raw material extraction or recycling into intermediate and final products [2]. Also, the waste is solid or gaseous, and it is chemically toxic or harmful, esthetically offensive, or radioactive. Some waste involves only temporary repression, while others can be isolated indefinitely [3]. The list of potential health problems that are important in the context of hazardous waste exposure was presented by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases and includes birth faults and reproductive complaints, cancers, immune illnesses, renal and liver dysfunction, respiratory diseases, and neurotoxic disorders [4].

Green synthesis of nanoparticles has recently aroused great interest due to its advantages such as being economic, simplicity, environmental friendliness, biosynthesis, and widespread use in conventional chemical and physical methods [5]. Nanomaterial production originates from a variability of wastes including crop remains, industrial wastes, and food wastes. To this end, a variety of treatment methods have been developed and implemented to convert waste into useful nanotubes by chemical and thermal action, pumping, gas condensation dust, reduction of sodium borohydride, and thermal method of the solvent [6].

The application of nanotechnology in various fields such as health and medicine, electronics, energy, and the environment are wide. In the field of water purification, nanotechnology offers the opportunity to effectively remove dirt and bacteria. Adsorption has proven to be the best process for water purification technology due to its key advantages [7]. The use of nanotubes in drug delivery, protein delivery, and cancer peptide delivery has been explained. Different types of nanoparticles in cancer treatment are provided, such as carbon dioxide nanoparticles and wire nano-shells [8].

In this chapter, we discuss the sources and types of different wastes, their problems on the environment, their use as a source of synthesis of nanoparticles, and then the application of these produced nanoparticles in different applications especially in the environment.

### **2. Wastes**

### **2.1 Sources and types of wastes**

### *2.1.1 Agricultural wastes*

Agricultural wastes can be defined as residues from the cultivation and processing of raw agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. Agricultural waste can be solid, liquid, or lubricant depending on the nature of the agricultural activity. In addition, agricultural wastes play an important part of global agricultural productivity [9]. Agricultural waste, which includes both organic (organic) and nonorganic wastes, is a general term used to describe farmgenerated waste through various agricultural activities. These activities may include, but are not limited to, milk, horticulture, seed production, animal husbandry, garden, nursery, and even forestry. Wastes from agriculture and the food industry make up a significant portion of global agricultural productivity. It is estimated that this waste may account for more than 30% of global agricultural productivity [10]. Agricultural waste today is very challenging, and many agricultural wastes are present in our environment every day. The latest trend in biofuel production from agricultural waste is in-depth research. Various processes such as chemical heat, gas emissions, liquid emissions, combustion, combustion, and rapid pyrolysis processes can be studied to obtain biofuels from agricultural wastes such as corn, straw, wheat, and rice straw [11].

### *2.1.2 Industrial wastes*

Industrial wastes present at a huge amounts and cause a lot of pollution. There is a global consensus to reduce such waste to reduce biological burden [12]. Contribution involves industrial waste recovery, especially from mining and metallurgical enterprises. Waste is processed in the form of hydraulic loads that can be disposed of in closed underground mines [13]. Industrial waste must be

**5**

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental…*

compatible (treatable) with sewage. Industrial waste must be limited and proportional to the flow and burden of sewage pollution. Industrial waste shall not be toxic or harmful to the operating purpose of the treated plant material. Industrial waste should not contain harmful substances to service personnel or those from the environment near the septic tank [14]. Industrial waste is either directly connected to streams or other natural water bodies or dumped into sewers. In this way, this waste, in one way or another affects the normal life of the stream or the normal functioning of sewers and treated plants. Water can discharge a certain amount of waste before it gets dirty, and municipal wastewater treatment plants can be designed to treat all kinds of industrial waste [15]. Typically, industrial waste can be divided into two categories, hazardous and nonhazardous. Nonhazardous industrial wastes do not cause environmental and health hazards and are produced from cardboard, plastic, iron, glass, stone, and organic waste. In contrast, hazardous wastes are industrial waste that can be harmful to public health or the environment, such as flammable, biodegradable, and hazardous materials [16]. Industrial waste is classified as wastewater, solid waste, or air leaks. There is some overlap in the physical properties of the substances present in these three categories, as wastewater can contain suspended solids and suspended liquids and precipitation of solid waste can include gas, liquid, and some liquids. Particles and air exposures may consist of a fluid that emits air fluid and a substance known as particle emission [17]. Industrial waste, which has a significant concentration of nonrecyclable or recyclable metals, is usually a good candidate

for landfill, which is the dumping of waste into the ground area [18].

Air pollution as a result of agriculture Very low but emissions from agricultural machinery and farm wastes is a common in many developing countries. Agriculture is a major source of water pollution and land resources. In view of the large water pollution caused by agriculture, special emphasis is placed. Leaking agricultural commodities can also be fatal to human's health problems. For example, carrying the pathogen can increase significantly by leaked and stagnant water bodies. When these sources used to meet drinking water needs, water infections can occur, especially in rural areas [19]. Pesticides, fertilizers, and agricultural wastes can cause severe water and soil pollution in the region. In recent years, it has also been clear that agriculture has been a major source of air pollution, with consequences that are long-term and universal [20]. Recognize that some nitrate may exist in nature with low water concentration, and any form of agriculture is likely to raise the level of nitrate [21].

Industrial pollution continues to be a major factor in worsening the environment around us, the water we use, the air we breathe, and the land we live in. The growing power of industrialization has not only consumed large agricultural land but at the same time has caused environmental degradation as well as land. Water from various industries finds its place in agriculture [22]. Waste released by industries such as sugarcane, sugarcane and resin, textile, viscose, latex, and oxalic acid have been evaluated and proven useful in agriculture. Other wastes such as sewage and sediment, fly ash, flowerpots, mud and biogas, and biowaste also have proved to be useful for increasing plant production and fertilizer savings [23]. In the course of waste production, solid and liquid industrial wastes were created. There are many elements

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

**2.2 Environmental problems of wastes**

*2.2.1 Agricultural waste problems*

*2.2.2 Industrial waste problems*

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

compatible (treatable) with sewage. Industrial waste must be limited and proportional to the flow and burden of sewage pollution. Industrial waste shall not be toxic or harmful to the operating purpose of the treated plant material. Industrial waste should not contain harmful substances to service personnel or those from the environment near the septic tank [14]. Industrial waste is either directly connected to streams or other natural water bodies or dumped into sewers. In this way, this waste, in one way or another affects the normal life of the stream or the normal functioning of sewers and treated plants. Water can discharge a certain amount of waste before it gets dirty, and municipal wastewater treatment plants can be designed to treat all kinds of industrial waste [15]. Typically, industrial waste can be divided into two categories, hazardous and nonhazardous. Nonhazardous industrial wastes do not cause environmental and health hazards and are produced from cardboard, plastic, iron, glass, stone, and organic waste. In contrast, hazardous wastes are industrial waste that can be harmful to public health or the environment, such as flammable, biodegradable, and hazardous materials [16]. Industrial waste is classified as wastewater, solid waste, or air leaks. There is some overlap in the physical properties of the substances present in these three categories, as wastewater can contain suspended solids and suspended liquids and precipitation of solid waste can include gas, liquid, and some liquids. Particles and air exposures may consist of a fluid that emits air fluid and a substance known as particle emission [17]. Industrial waste, which has a significant concentration of nonrecyclable or recyclable metals, is usually a good candidate for landfill, which is the dumping of waste into the ground area [18].

### **2.2 Environmental problems of wastes**

### *2.2.1 Agricultural waste problems*

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

nano-shells [8].

**2. Wastes**

especially in the environment.

**2.1 Sources and types of wastes**

*2.1.1 Agricultural wastes*

and rice straw [11].

*2.1.2 Industrial wastes*

Green synthesis of nanoparticles has recently aroused great interest due to its advantages such as being economic, simplicity, environmental friendliness, biosynthesis, and widespread use in conventional chemical and physical methods [5]. Nanomaterial production originates from a variability of wastes including crop remains, industrial wastes, and food wastes. To this end, a variety of treatment methods have been developed and implemented to convert waste into useful nanotubes by chemical and thermal action, pumping, gas condensation dust, reduction

The application of nanotechnology in various fields such as health and medicine,

electronics, energy, and the environment are wide. In the field of water purification, nanotechnology offers the opportunity to effectively remove dirt and bacteria. Adsorption has proven to be the best process for water purification technology due to its key advantages [7]. The use of nanotubes in drug delivery, protein delivery, and cancer peptide delivery has been explained. Different types of nanoparticles in cancer treatment are provided, such as carbon dioxide nanoparticles and wire

In this chapter, we discuss the sources and types of different wastes, their problems on the environment, their use as a source of synthesis of nanoparticles, and then the application of these produced nanoparticles in different applications

Agricultural wastes can be defined as residues from the cultivation and processing of raw agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. Agricultural waste can be solid, liquid, or lubricant depending on the nature of the agricultural activity. In addition, agricultural wastes play an important part of global agricultural productivity [9]. Agricultural waste, which includes both organic (organic) and nonorganic wastes, is a general term used to describe farmgenerated waste through various agricultural activities. These activities may include, but are not limited to, milk, horticulture, seed production, animal husbandry, garden, nursery, and even forestry. Wastes from agriculture and the food industry make up a significant portion of global agricultural productivity. It is estimated that this waste may account for more than 30% of global agricultural productivity [10]. Agricultural waste today is very challenging, and many agricultural wastes are present in our environment every day. The latest trend in biofuel production from agricultural waste is in-depth research. Various processes such as chemical heat, gas emissions, liquid emissions, combustion, combustion, and rapid pyrolysis processes can be studied to obtain biofuels from agricultural wastes such as corn, straw, wheat,

Industrial wastes present at a huge amounts and cause a lot of pollution. There

is a global consensus to reduce such waste to reduce biological burden [12]. Contribution involves industrial waste recovery, especially from mining and metallurgical enterprises. Waste is processed in the form of hydraulic loads that can be disposed of in closed underground mines [13]. Industrial waste must be

of sodium borohydride, and thermal method of the solvent [6].

**4**

Air pollution as a result of agriculture Very low but emissions from agricultural machinery and farm wastes is a common in many developing countries. Agriculture is a major source of water pollution and land resources. In view of the large water pollution caused by agriculture, special emphasis is placed. Leaking agricultural commodities can also be fatal to human's health problems. For example, carrying the pathogen can increase significantly by leaked and stagnant water bodies. When these sources used to meet drinking water needs, water infections can occur, especially in rural areas [19]. Pesticides, fertilizers, and agricultural wastes can cause severe water and soil pollution in the region. In recent years, it has also been clear that agriculture has been a major source of air pollution, with consequences that are long-term and universal [20]. Recognize that some nitrate may exist in nature with low water concentration, and any form of agriculture is likely to raise the level of nitrate [21].

### *2.2.2 Industrial waste problems*

Industrial pollution continues to be a major factor in worsening the environment around us, the water we use, the air we breathe, and the land we live in. The growing power of industrialization has not only consumed large agricultural land but at the same time has caused environmental degradation as well as land. Water from various industries finds its place in agriculture [22]. Waste released by industries such as sugarcane, sugarcane and resin, textile, viscose, latex, and oxalic acid have been evaluated and proven useful in agriculture. Other wastes such as sewage and sediment, fly ash, flowerpots, mud and biogas, and biowaste also have proved to be useful for increasing plant production and fertilizer savings [23]. In the course of waste production, solid and liquid industrial wastes were created. There are many elements that can be valuable components for agriculture and fertilizer and produced from industrial wastes. These wastes accumulate in significant quantities due to the high chemical content [24]. Human activities such as extraction and emission, burning of fossil fuels and fossils, as well as the use of organic and other chemicals and radium in agriculture and industry pose a risk to the environment and the general population. Awareness of these risks due to industrial waste has emerged through many cases of severe environmental impacts many years after disposal [25].

### **3. Synthesis of nanoparticles using different wastes**

Agricultural wastes consist of both natural and nonnatural wastes such as bananas or oranges, wheat, straw, cotton or corn, coconut or almonds, silk, corn, oats, coconut oil, grapes, and empty grapes that can also be successfully applied to obtain nanoparticles [26]. On the other hand, industrial wastes have a wider variety and additional concentrated shape of hazardous materials needing special technologies and handling procedures for treatment of produced nano-materials [27].

### **3.1 Nano-cellulose**

Nano-sized cellulose materials are currently made from agricultural wastes and involved in the durable materials industry. The main groups of nano-celluloses (NC) are two (1) nano-fibrillated cellulose (NFC) and (2) cellular nano-crystals (CNC). They are often referred to as second-generation renewable resources for oil products. Further attention has been paid to these materials due to their low density and high mechanical properties, renewability, and biogas characteristics [28]. Extraction of nano-cellulose from agricultural wastes is a promising substitute for waste treatment, and greater use of nano-cellulose in biological sciences is expected in the future [29]. Nano-cellulose has become an important topic for many research areas because of its renewable availability of biocides and many good properties [30]. In recent years, research on nanoparticles has led to many applications and focuses on the latest developments in the value of lingo-cellulosic biomass obtained from different agro-industrial crops as a source of NC, which include (i) the structure of lingo-cellulosic biomass and its effects on nano-cellulose properties and (ii) prebiological treatment and nano-cellulose extraction procedures [31]. Also, Banana bark is a type of waste that is a promising material for the production of nano-zulose. It characterizes nano-cellulose from the inner and outer layers of the pseudo-banana tree as a preliminary research strategy for designing mutant packaging material from banana nano-cellulose [27]. From industrial wastes, different alternative pathways for the production of nano-cellulose crystals have been studied due to this common acid. The hydrocarbon-producing process leads to many environmental issues such as wastewater generation and water use or access to products containing sulfur [32].

### **3.2 Metals and metal oxide nanoparticles**

Metals and metal oxide nanoparticles can be synthesized and improved in its properties using different wastes. Fe3O4 nano-composites are synthesized using papaya leaves as lingo-cellulosic agricultural wastes using a simple thermal decomposition method [33]. It has been found that the development of NPs from different plant systems is cost-effective, environmentally friendly, easy, and exciting way to other procedures. The roots of the plants have preserved several minerals and food reserves. They also contain phenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, proteins,

**7**

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental…*

enzymes, carbohydrates, and other organic compounds. These metabolites play a key role in reducing metal ions in the desired NPs and also act as closing and stabilizing agents [34]. Based on the nontoxic nature of SiO2NP from bamboo leaves, the researchers successfully synthesized 13.8 nm SiO2NP as a source of silica, which they considered as a potential alternative for drug delivery and other medical applications [35]. The addition of banana peel extract to an alkaline solution of tetraethyl orthosilicate in ethanol, followed by calcination of the precipitate, resulted in 20 nm SiO2NPs [36]. Sugarcane baggage was used for size control (TiO2NPs). TiO2 sol obtained from titanium tetra isopropoxide at pH = 4 was calcined at 200°C for 5 h, resulting in a TiO2 powder gel [37]. Also, Mn3O4 nanoparticles can be synthesizes using banana peel extract which play a dual role in reducing KMnO4 to Mn3O4 formation and preventing agglomeration of nanoparticles during preparation [38]. Tea wastes are used to synthesize hydrated aluminum nanoparticles. This porous nanomaterial is synthesized by co-precipitation between aluminum sulfate and NaOH in the presence of tea waste and anionic polyacrylamide. Maintained porous aluminum is used as an anionic exchange of fluoride with sulfate ions to neutralize drinking water [39]. Scientists have developed a unique method for the synthesis of high quality GO and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets of various naturally available green wastes and carbon wastes, including animal wastes, vegetable wastes (leaves, wood, and fruit waste) and semi-industrial wastes such as newspaper [40]. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNP), using agricultural waste, is low-cost and safe for nature and is environmentally friendly. Coconut shell extract (*Cocos nucifera*) is used to synthesize Ag NPs [41]. The SnO2 and Ag nanoparticles were produced with a solution of nitric acid from a raw material obtained by leaching printed circuit boards. First, the tin oxide is squeezed from nitric acid solution by three different techniques: (1) normal heating, (2) microwave heating, and (3) ultrasonic treatment. Second, this precursor is transformed into tin oxide nanoparticles by furnace heat treatment. Third, hydrochloric acid is added to the nitric acid solution to cause precipitation of silver chloride. Fourth, silver chlorine is reduced to silver nanoparticles in ammonia solution, using glucose as a reducing and closing agent. The reduction reaction was performed by (i) normal warming, (II) micro-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

wave scavenging, and (III) ultrasound therapy [42].

Nanocarbons were synthesized in different ways, Such as synthesis of carbon nanotubes from waste (disposable container made of polyester) using a reactor and heating system. In the reactor used, because of the high pressure and temperature above 700°C used along with the appropriate catalysts for different periods, all the materials lose their macroscopes and disperse into nanoparticles. [43]. Also, carbon nanotubes were obtained by monitoring pyrolysis of acrylic fiber residues under a layer of charcoal using physical activity in a high-temperature oven [44]. Carbon nanotubes can be released from nanoparticles into the environment at the end of their life, or whether they remain embedded in the matrix. Carbon nanotubes from poly lactic films and poly lactic acids were studied for the scenario of biodegradation and nano-composite [45]. Additionally, carbon nanoparticles synthesized by laser pyrolysis of hydrocarbons in a flow reactor have been studied as a function of laser energy [46]. On the other hand, waste plastic caused serious environmental problems. In this case, nitrogen-doped porous carbon nano-sheets (N-PCN) were prepared using magnesium hydroxide sheets [Mg (OH) 2], which are modified by Zn and Co bimetallic zeolite imidazolate frame nanoparticles such as templates and polystyrene (PS) as a carbon precursor [47]. Also, nano-channeled ultra-fine carbon tubes (NCUFCTs) and polygonal carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were

**3.3 Carbon nanoparticles**

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

enzymes, carbohydrates, and other organic compounds. These metabolites play a key role in reducing metal ions in the desired NPs and also act as closing and stabilizing agents [34]. Based on the nontoxic nature of SiO2NP from bamboo leaves, the researchers successfully synthesized 13.8 nm SiO2NP as a source of silica, which they considered as a potential alternative for drug delivery and other medical applications [35]. The addition of banana peel extract to an alkaline solution of tetraethyl orthosilicate in ethanol, followed by calcination of the precipitate, resulted in 20 nm SiO2NPs [36]. Sugarcane baggage was used for size control (TiO2NPs). TiO2 sol obtained from titanium tetra isopropoxide at pH = 4 was calcined at 200°C for 5 h, resulting in a TiO2 powder gel [37]. Also, Mn3O4 nanoparticles can be synthesizes using banana peel extract which play a dual role in reducing KMnO4 to Mn3O4 formation and preventing agglomeration of nanoparticles during preparation [38]. Tea wastes are used to synthesize hydrated aluminum nanoparticles. This porous nanomaterial is synthesized by co-precipitation between aluminum sulfate and NaOH in the presence of tea waste and anionic polyacrylamide. Maintained porous aluminum is used as an anionic exchange of fluoride with sulfate ions to neutralize drinking water [39]. Scientists have developed a unique method for the synthesis of high quality GO and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets of various naturally available green wastes and carbon wastes, including animal wastes, vegetable wastes (leaves, wood, and fruit waste) and semi-industrial wastes such as newspaper [40]. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNP), using agricultural waste, is low-cost and safe for nature and is environmentally friendly. Coconut shell extract (*Cocos nucifera*) is used to synthesize Ag NPs [41]. The SnO2 and Ag nanoparticles were produced with a solution of nitric acid from a raw material obtained by leaching printed circuit boards. First, the tin oxide is squeezed from nitric acid solution by three different techniques: (1) normal heating, (2) microwave heating, and (3) ultrasonic treatment. Second, this precursor is transformed into tin oxide nanoparticles by furnace heat treatment. Third, hydrochloric acid is added to the nitric acid solution to cause precipitation of silver chloride. Fourth, silver chlorine is reduced to silver nanoparticles in ammonia solution, using glucose as a reducing and closing agent. The reduction reaction was performed by (i) normal warming, (II) microwave scavenging, and (III) ultrasound therapy [42].

### **3.3 Carbon nanoparticles**

Nanocarbons were synthesized in different ways, Such as synthesis of carbon nanotubes from waste (disposable container made of polyester) using a reactor and heating system. In the reactor used, because of the high pressure and temperature above 700°C used along with the appropriate catalysts for different periods, all the materials lose their macroscopes and disperse into nanoparticles. [43]. Also, carbon nanotubes were obtained by monitoring pyrolysis of acrylic fiber residues under a layer of charcoal using physical activity in a high-temperature oven [44]. Carbon nanotubes can be released from nanoparticles into the environment at the end of their life, or whether they remain embedded in the matrix. Carbon nanotubes from poly lactic films and poly lactic acids were studied for the scenario of biodegradation and nano-composite [45]. Additionally, carbon nanoparticles synthesized by laser pyrolysis of hydrocarbons in a flow reactor have been studied as a function of laser energy [46]. On the other hand, waste plastic caused serious environmental problems. In this case, nitrogen-doped porous carbon nano-sheets (N-PCN) were prepared using magnesium hydroxide sheets [Mg (OH) 2], which are modified by Zn and Co bimetallic zeolite imidazolate frame nanoparticles such as templates and polystyrene (PS) as a carbon precursor [47]. Also, nano-channeled ultra-fine carbon tubes (NCUFCTs) and polygonal carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

**3.1 Nano-cellulose**

to products containing sulfur [32].

**3.2 Metals and metal oxide nanoparticles**

that can be valuable components for agriculture and fertilizer and produced from industrial wastes. These wastes accumulate in significant quantities due to the high chemical content [24]. Human activities such as extraction and emission, burning of fossil fuels and fossils, as well as the use of organic and other chemicals and radium in agriculture and industry pose a risk to the environment and the general population. Awareness of these risks due to industrial waste has emerged through many

Agricultural wastes consist of both natural and nonnatural wastes such as bananas or oranges, wheat, straw, cotton or corn, coconut or almonds, silk, corn, oats, coconut oil, grapes, and empty grapes that can also be successfully applied to obtain nanoparticles [26]. On the other hand, industrial wastes have a wider variety and additional concentrated shape of hazardous materials needing special technologies and handling

Nano-sized cellulose materials are currently made from agricultural wastes and involved in the durable materials industry. The main groups of nano-celluloses (NC) are two (1) nano-fibrillated cellulose (NFC) and (2) cellular nano-crystals (CNC). They are often referred to as second-generation renewable resources for oil products. Further attention has been paid to these materials due to their low density and high mechanical properties, renewability, and biogas characteristics [28]. Extraction of nano-cellulose from agricultural wastes is a promising substitute for waste treatment, and greater use of nano-cellulose in biological sciences is expected in the future [29]. Nano-cellulose has become an important topic for many research areas because of its renewable availability of biocides and many good properties [30]. In recent years, research on nanoparticles has led to many applications and focuses on the latest developments in the value of lingo-cellulosic biomass obtained from different agro-industrial crops as a source of NC, which include (i) the structure of lingo-cellulosic biomass and its effects on nano-cellulose properties and (ii) prebiological treatment and nano-cellulose extraction procedures [31]. Also, Banana bark is a type of waste that is a promising material for the production of nano-zulose. It characterizes nano-cellulose from the inner and outer layers of the pseudo-banana tree as a preliminary research strategy for designing mutant packaging material from banana nano-cellulose [27]. From industrial wastes, different alternative pathways for the production of nano-cellulose crystals have been studied due to this common acid. The hydrocarbon-producing process leads to many environmental issues such as wastewater generation and water use or access

Metals and metal oxide nanoparticles can be synthesized and improved in its properties using different wastes. Fe3O4 nano-composites are synthesized using papaya leaves as lingo-cellulosic agricultural wastes using a simple thermal decomposition method [33]. It has been found that the development of NPs from different plant systems is cost-effective, environmentally friendly, easy, and exciting way to other procedures. The roots of the plants have preserved several minerals and food reserves. They also contain phenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, proteins,

cases of severe environmental impacts many years after disposal [25].

**3. Synthesis of nanoparticles using different wastes**

procedures for treatment of produced nano-materials [27].

**6**

prepared from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste by the spinning cathode technique. The manufacture of carbon black from anode covers ultra-fine and nano-sized solid carbon spheres (SCS) by means of an average diameter of 221 and 100 nm individually, shaped in the low-temperature area of the anode, where the temperature is around 1700°C [48]. Carbon-bound nanofibers (CNFs) are obtained by the decomposition of methane onto Ni nanoparticles supported by grooved SiC nanowires. In beam CNFs, several CNFs grow in parallel and form a packet of CNFs [49]. Tea wastes are rich in carbon, nitrogen, and potassium, but poor in phosphorus, which means that they can also be used to reduce metal oxides once they are carbonated and form carbon nanoparticles [50]. Also, thermoplastic polymers (such as polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, etc.) are the main components of municipal solid waste. Millions of tons of plastic waste are dumped every year, most of which is incinerated or dumped. Alternatively, various researchers have proposed methods using this waste as feed to produce value-added products such as fuels, carbon nanotubes, and porous carbon emissions [51].

### **3.4 Silica and graphene nanoparticles**

The production of silica nanoparticles by conventional processes is complex and takes place at very high temperatures. Silica nanoparticles of different sizes are obtained from plastic waste, disposable boxes, and water bottles by a simple method of carbothermal reduction [52]. Also, researchers developed an alternative use of some agricultural waste as potential sources of silicon that can be used for PV cells. This study examines the use of cassava periderm, corn stalk, and cob as new sources of silicon nanoparticles. Agro-based silicon nanoparticles are prepared by the modified sol-gel method and then reduced using magnesium to synthesize silicon nanoparticles [53]. A nano-composite material found on Ag nanoparticles and graphene oxide was considered for its electrical, optical, and physical properties. According to electron and atomic force microscopy data, the size of the nanoparticles obtained varies mostly from 60 to 100 nm. The permeability and electrical resistance of this material indicate higher optical transparency and electrical conductivity than in virgin graphene oxide [54]. Agricultural wastes as rice straw, rice husk, and leaves of bamboo delivered a simple method to silicon production. Several agricultural wastes are generated and disposed of indiscriminately in the environment and thus pose environmental challenges. This study examines the use of cash periderm as a new source of silicon nanoparticles. The cassava was treated with acid before and after fermentation to obtain silicone residues for the gelation process for the production of silicon nanoparticles [55]. The synthesis of silica from nanoparticles from rice husk, sugarcane, and coffee nut has been reported using vermicompost with Anelides (*Eisenia foetida*). The product (humus) is calcined and extracted to recover the crystalline nanoparticles [56].

### **4. Environmental applications of produced nanoparticles using different wastes**

Pollution is one of the biggest problems in the world, which poses a lot of risks to humans, animals, plants, and ecosystems [57]. Nano-cellulose has a diameter usually <10 nm, which gives it many unique properties. Among many others, these properties include high mechanical strength, large area, and low visual light scattering [58]. The four main groups of cellulosic nanoparticles and their easy surface modification provide a huge variety of new materials, composites, films, and gels with captivating and controllable properties to solve environmental problems

**9**

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental…*

and challenges [59]. Applications and properties of cellulosic nanoparticles such as adsorbent, photocatalyst, flocculant, and membranes have been reviewed in particular [60]. Attractive properties facilitate the use of nano-cellulose aerogels in various environmental and engineering applications such as water purification, filtration, flame retardation, and oil extraction [61]. The nano-cellulose has become a sustainable and successful nanomaterial with its unique structure and features such as high specific modulus, excellent stability in most solvents, low toxicity, and natural diversity. Eco-friendly environment, low cost, convenience, and simple synthesis techniques make nano-lotus a promising candidate for the production of green renewable energy storage [62]. Environmental challenges that can be addressed by the use of metal oxide nanoparticles that are produced by different wastes include removal of toxic chemicals such as different heavy metals from industrial wastewater and wastewater, catalysts for organic reactions to produce essential organic material, reproducible genes for environmental restoration, volatile organic compounds and detectors, and biological/chemical signals [63]. Catalysts of metal oxide nanoparticles include reaction-base, selective oxidation, complete oxidation, depolation, biosynthesis, green chemistry, and photocatalysis. Iron oxide nanoparticle catalysts are important components in the refining and petrochemical processes. These catalysts are also important for improving environmental quality [64]. On the other hand, graphene and carbon tube nanoparticles offer a variety of advanced applications in the field of energy storage, biological applications, and electrolytes due to their mechanical, electrical, electrical, and thermal properties [65]. Nanocarbon-TiO2 composites were prepared by the liquid phase deposition method to apply as photocatalytic for the degradation of heavy

This chapter concluded that, millions of tonnes of different wastes are produced

Firstly, great thanks and appreciation to the staff of Al-Azhar University, Faculty of Science for their support and encouragement. Finally, I dedicate this work to my father's soul and thank my mother, brother, sisters, and everyone in my family for

annually without any benefits from it. Researchers have used these wastes in synthesis of different nanoparticles such as nano-cellulose, metals, and metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles and nano-fibers by different methods. These NPs are used to solve environmental problems, especially pollution, for which they are used as protective agents and adsorbents. In future prospective, researchers must use these NPs in a wide range of applications as ecofriendly and low-cost

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

metals, diphenhydramine, and dyes [66].

**5. Conclusion**

products.

**Acknowledgements**

their continual guidance.

**Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

and challenges [59]. Applications and properties of cellulosic nanoparticles such as adsorbent, photocatalyst, flocculant, and membranes have been reviewed in particular [60]. Attractive properties facilitate the use of nano-cellulose aerogels in various environmental and engineering applications such as water purification, filtration, flame retardation, and oil extraction [61]. The nano-cellulose has become a sustainable and successful nanomaterial with its unique structure and features such as high specific modulus, excellent stability in most solvents, low toxicity, and natural diversity. Eco-friendly environment, low cost, convenience, and simple synthesis techniques make nano-lotus a promising candidate for the production of green renewable energy storage [62]. Environmental challenges that can be addressed by the use of metal oxide nanoparticles that are produced by different wastes include removal of toxic chemicals such as different heavy metals from industrial wastewater and wastewater, catalysts for organic reactions to produce essential organic material, reproducible genes for environmental restoration, volatile organic compounds and detectors, and biological/chemical signals [63]. Catalysts of metal oxide nanoparticles include reaction-base, selective oxidation, complete oxidation, depolation, biosynthesis, green chemistry, and photocatalysis. Iron oxide nanoparticle catalysts are important components in the refining and petrochemical processes. These catalysts are also important for improving environmental quality [64]. On the other hand, graphene and carbon tube nanoparticles offer a variety of advanced applications in the field of energy storage, biological applications, and electrolytes due to their mechanical, electrical, electrical, and thermal properties [65]. Nanocarbon-TiO2 composites were prepared by the liquid phase deposition method to apply as photocatalytic for the degradation of heavy metals, diphenhydramine, and dyes [66].

### **5. Conclusion**

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

**3.4 Silica and graphene nanoparticles**

extracted to recover the crystalline nanoparticles [56].

**different wastes**

**4. Environmental applications of produced nanoparticles using** 

Pollution is one of the biggest problems in the world, which poses a lot of risks to humans, animals, plants, and ecosystems [57]. Nano-cellulose has a diameter usually <10 nm, which gives it many unique properties. Among many others, these properties include high mechanical strength, large area, and low visual light scattering [58]. The four main groups of cellulosic nanoparticles and their easy surface modification provide a huge variety of new materials, composites, films, and gels with captivating and controllable properties to solve environmental problems

prepared from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste by the spinning cathode technique. The manufacture of carbon black from anode covers ultra-fine and nano-sized solid carbon spheres (SCS) by means of an average diameter of 221 and 100 nm individually, shaped in the low-temperature area of the anode, where the temperature is around 1700°C [48]. Carbon-bound nanofibers (CNFs) are obtained by the decomposition of methane onto Ni nanoparticles supported by grooved SiC nanowires. In beam CNFs, several CNFs grow in parallel and form a packet of CNFs [49]. Tea wastes are rich in carbon, nitrogen, and potassium, but poor in phosphorus, which means that they can also be used to reduce metal oxides once they are carbonated and form carbon nanoparticles [50]. Also, thermoplastic polymers (such as polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, etc.) are the main components of municipal solid waste. Millions of tons of plastic waste are dumped every year, most of which is incinerated or dumped. Alternatively, various researchers have proposed methods using this waste as feed to produce value-added

products such as fuels, carbon nanotubes, and porous carbon emissions [51].

The production of silica nanoparticles by conventional processes is complex and takes place at very high temperatures. Silica nanoparticles of different sizes are obtained from plastic waste, disposable boxes, and water bottles by a simple method of carbothermal reduction [52]. Also, researchers developed an alternative use of some agricultural waste as potential sources of silicon that can be used for PV cells. This study examines the use of cassava periderm, corn stalk, and cob as new sources of silicon nanoparticles. Agro-based silicon nanoparticles are prepared by the modified sol-gel method and then reduced using magnesium to synthesize silicon nanoparticles [53]. A nano-composite material found on Ag nanoparticles and graphene oxide was considered for its electrical, optical, and physical properties. According to electron and atomic force microscopy data, the size of the nanoparticles obtained varies mostly from 60 to 100 nm. The permeability and electrical resistance of this material indicate higher optical transparency and electrical conductivity than in virgin graphene oxide [54]. Agricultural wastes as rice straw, rice husk, and leaves of bamboo delivered a simple method to silicon production. Several agricultural wastes are generated and disposed of indiscriminately in the environment and thus pose environmental challenges. This study examines the use of cash periderm as a new source of silicon nanoparticles. The cassava was treated with acid before and after fermentation to obtain silicone residues for the gelation process for the production of silicon nanoparticles [55]. The synthesis of silica from nanoparticles from rice husk, sugarcane, and coffee nut has been reported using vermicompost with Anelides (*Eisenia foetida*). The product (humus) is calcined and

**8**

This chapter concluded that, millions of tonnes of different wastes are produced annually without any benefits from it. Researchers have used these wastes in synthesis of different nanoparticles such as nano-cellulose, metals, and metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles and nano-fibers by different methods. These NPs are used to solve environmental problems, especially pollution, for which they are used as protective agents and adsorbents. In future prospective, researchers must use these NPs in a wide range of applications as ecofriendly and low-cost products.

### **Acknowledgements**

Firstly, great thanks and appreciation to the staff of Al-Azhar University, Faculty of Science for their support and encouragement. Finally, I dedicate this work to my father's soul and thank my mother, brother, sisters, and everyone in my family for their continual guidance.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

### **Author details**

Salah Abdelbary1 \* and Hadeer Abdelfattah<sup>2</sup>

1 Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Nasr City, Egypt

2 Drug Radiation Research Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Nasr City, Egypt

\*Address all correspondence to: salah.micro87@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**11**

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental…*

[10] Ashworth GS, Azevedo P. Agricultural wastes. In: Agricultural

[12] CA. A treatise on sub- and supercritical fluids: Versatile domains and applications. In: Reference Module in Food Science. Comprehensive Review in Food Science and Food Safety; 2019. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-08-100596-5.22951-x

[13] Dvořáček J, Vodzinský V, Domaracká L. Industrial wastes and economics of their utilization. Meta.

[14] Nemerow NL. Industrial collaborative solutions. In: Environmental Solutions. 2005. pp. 249-295. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-012088441-4/50013-7

[15] Muralikrishna IV, Manickam V. Industrial wastewater treatment technologies, recycling, and reuse. In: Environmental Management. 2017. pp. 295-336. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-12-811989-1.00013-0

[16] Millati R, Cahyono RB, Ariyanto T, Azzahrani IN, Putri RU, Taherzadeh MJ. Agricultural, industrial, municipal, and forest wastes. In: Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches.

2019. pp. 1-22. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-444-64200-4.00001-3

[17] Ramachandra Rao S. Waste

10.1016/s0713-2743(06)80087-5

[18] Artiola JF. Industrial waste and municipal solid waste treatment

Characterization. 2006. pp. 13-34. DOI:

2006;**45**(2):141-143

[11] Swain PK. Utilization of agriculture waste products for production of biofuels: A novel study. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2017;**4**(11):11959-11967. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2017.09.117

Wastes. Agriculture Issues and Policies Series; 2009. DOI: 10.2175/106143099x133767

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

[1] Basel Convention. Archivedcopy (PDF). 1989. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-16 [Retrieved: 25

[2] Glossary of Environment Statistics. UNSD; 1997. Archived (2013) at the

[3] Nace RL. Problems of underground storage of wastes. Journal of Research

[4] Zejda JE. Health effects of hazardous wastes. Central European Journal of Public Health. 1998;**6**(2):140-143

of the U.S. Geological Survey.

[5] Adelere IA, Lateef A. A novel approach to the green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles: The use of agro-wastes, enzymes, and pigments. Nanotechnology Reviews. 2016;**5**(6):567-587. DOI: 10.1515/

[6] Samaddar P, Ok YS, Kim KH, Kwon EE, Tsang DCW. Synthesis of nanomaterials from various wastes and their new age applications. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;**197**: 1190-1209. DOI: 10.1016/j. jclepro.2018.06.262

[7] Ali HR. Applications of biowaste materials as green synthesis of nanoparticles and water purification. Advances in Materials. 2017;**6**(5):85. DOI: 10.11648/j.am.20170605.16

[8] Pavlovic M, Mayfield J, Balint B. Nanotechnology and its application in medicine. In: Handbook of Medical and Healthcare Technologies. Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research; 2013. pp. 181-205. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8495-0\_7

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*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

### **References**

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

**10**

**Author details**

Salah Abdelbary1

Nasr City, Egypt

\* and Hadeer Abdelfattah<sup>2</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: salah.micro87@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University,

2 Drug Radiation Research Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Nasr City, Egypt

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

[1] Basel Convention. Archivedcopy (PDF). 1989. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-16 [Retrieved: 25 May 2017]

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[4] Zejda JE. Health effects of hazardous wastes. Central European Journal of Public Health. 1998;**6**(2):140-143

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[6] Samaddar P, Ok YS, Kim KH, Kwon EE, Tsang DCW. Synthesis of nanomaterials from various wastes and their new age applications. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;**197**: 1190-1209. DOI: 10.1016/j. jclepro.2018.06.262

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[9] Foster CN. Agricultural wastes: Characteristics, types and management. In: Agricultural Wastes: Characteristics, Types and Management. 2015. pp. 1-15

[10] Ashworth GS, Azevedo P. Agricultural wastes. In: Agricultural Wastes. Agriculture Issues and Policies Series; 2009. DOI: 10.2175/106143099x133767

[11] Swain PK. Utilization of agriculture waste products for production of biofuels: A novel study. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2017;**4**(11):11959-11967. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2017.09.117

[12] CA. A treatise on sub- and supercritical fluids: Versatile domains and applications. In: Reference Module in Food Science. Comprehensive Review in Food Science and Food Safety; 2019. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-08-100596-5.22951-x

[13] Dvořáček J, Vodzinský V, Domaracká L. Industrial wastes and economics of their utilization. Meta. 2006;**45**(2):141-143

[14] Nemerow NL. Industrial collaborative solutions. In: Environmental Solutions. 2005. pp. 249-295. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-012088441-4/50013-7

[15] Muralikrishna IV, Manickam V. Industrial wastewater treatment technologies, recycling, and reuse. In: Environmental Management. 2017. pp. 295-336. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-12-811989-1.00013-0

[16] Millati R, Cahyono RB, Ariyanto T, Azzahrani IN, Putri RU, Taherzadeh MJ. Agricultural, industrial, municipal, and forest wastes. In: Sustainable Resource Recovery and Zero Waste Approaches. 2019. pp. 1-22. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-444-64200-4.00001-3

[17] Ramachandra Rao S. Waste Characterization. 2006. pp. 13-34. DOI: 10.1016/s0713-2743(06)80087-5

[18] Artiola JF. Industrial waste and municipal solid waste treatment

and disposal. In: Environmental and Pollution Science. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health; 2019. pp. 377-391. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-12-814719-1.00021-5

[19] Nagendran R. Agricultural waste and pollution. In: Waste. Elsevier; 2011. pp. 341-355. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-381475-3.10024-5

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[21] OECD: water pollution by fertilizers and animal wastes. World Farmers' Times; 1987. p. 2

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[23] Dikshit PR, Khatik SK. Contribution and potential of industrial wastes and sewage sludge for increasing crop production. Journal of Industrial Pollution Control. 2000;**16**(1):81-93

[24] Wolski T, Glinski J. Utilization of environment-polluting industrial wastes for agriculture and the fertilizer industry. Studies in Environmental Science. 1986;**29**(C):599-607. DOI: 10.1016/S0166-1116(08)70965-8

[25] Lal R. Pollution: Industrial waste. In: Encyclopedia of Soil Science. 3rd ed. Taylor and Francis Group; 2017. pp. 1762-1764. DOI: 10.1081/e-ess3-120006661

[26] Zamani A, Poursattar Marjani A, Abdollahpour N. Synthesis of high surface area boehmite and alumina by using walnut shell as template. International Journal of Nano and Biomaterials. 2019;**8**:1-14

[27] Chandrappa R, Das DB. Wastes from industrial and commercial

activities. Environmental Science and Engineering (Subseries: Environmental Science). 2012;(9783642286803):217- 247. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-28681-0\_9

[28] Rajinipriya M, Nagalakshmaiah M, Robert M, Elkoun S. Importance of agricultural and industrial waste in the field of nanocellulose and recent industrial developments of wood based nanocellulose: A review. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2018;**6**(3):2807-2828. DOI: 10.1021/ acssuschemeng.7b03437

[29] Sangeetha J, Thangadurai D, Hospet R, Purushotham P, Manowade KR, Mujeeb MA, et al. Production of bionanomaterials from agricultural wastes. In: Nanotechnology: An Agricultural Paradigm. Nanomaterial and Nanostructures; 2017. pp. 33-58. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-4573-8\_3

[30] García A, Gandini A, Labidi J, Belgacem N, Bras J. Industrial and crop wastes: A new source for nanocellulose biorefinery. Industrial Crops and Products. 2016;**93**:26-38. DOI: 10.1016/j. indcrop.2016.06.004

[31] Pires JRA, Souza VGL, Fernando AL. Ecofriendly strategies for the production of nanocellulose from agro-industrial wastes. In: European Biomass Conference and Exhibition Proceedings. 2019. pp. 1781-1784

[32] Satyamurthy P, Vigneshwaran N. A novel process for synthesis of spherical nanocellulose by controlled hydrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose using anaerobic microbial consortium. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 2013;**52**:20-25

[33] Ahmed M, Ahmaruzzaman M. Fabrication and characterization of novel lignocellulosic biomass tailored Fe3O4 nanocomposites: Influence of annealing temperature and chlorazol black sequestration. RSC Advances. 2015;**5**:107466107473

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[44] Baheti V, Naeem S, Militky J, Okrasa M, Tomkova B. Optimized preparation of activated carbon nanoparticles from acrylic fibrous wastes. Fibers and Polymers.

2015;**16**(10):2193-2201. DOI: 10.1007/

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Jagannatham M, Priyanka S, Haridoss P.

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[34] Bachheti RK, Godebo Y, Bachheti A, Yassin MO, Husen A. Root-based fabrication of metal/metal-oxide nanomaterials and their various applications. In: Nanomaterials for Agriculture and Forestry Applications. 2020. pp. 135-166. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-12-817852-2.00006-8

[35] Kauldhar B, Yadav S. Turning waste to wealth: A direct process for recovery of nano-silica and lignin from paddy straw agro-waste. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;**194**:158-166

[36] Ali SM. Fabrication of a

2018;**15**:1169-1178

2018;**82**:197-203

2014;**4**:23649-23652

nanocomposite from an agricultural waste and its application as a biosorbent for organic pollutants. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology.

[37] Xue H, Chen Y, Liu X, Qian Q, Luo Y, Cui M, et al. Visible light-assisted efficient degradation of dye pollutants with biomass-supported TiO2 hybrids. Materials Science & Engineering, C: Materials for Biological Applications.

[38] Yan D, Zhang H, Chen L, Zhu G, Wang Z, Xu H. Supercapacitive properties of MnO3 nanoparticles biosynthesized from banana peel extract. RSC Advances.

[39] Cai H, Chen G, Peng C, Xu L, Zhu X, Zhang Z. Enhanced removal of fluoride by tea waste supported hydrous aluminium oxide nanoparticles: Anionic polyacrylamide mediated aluminium assembly and adsorption mechanism. RSC Advances. 2015;**5**:29266-29275

[40] Rajesh K, Rajesh KS, Dinesh PS. Natural and waste hydrocarbon precursors for the synthesis of carbon based nanomaterials: Graphene and CNTs. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016;**58**:976-1006

[41] Sinsinwar S, Sarkar M, Suriya K, Nithy P, Vadivel V. Use of agricultural *Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

[34] Bachheti RK, Godebo Y, Bachheti A, Yassin MO, Husen A. Root-based fabrication of metal/metal-oxide nanomaterials and their various applications. In: Nanomaterials for Agriculture and Forestry Applications. 2020. pp. 135-166. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-12-817852-2.00006-8

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

b978-0-12-814719-1.00021-5

and disposal. In: Environmental and Pollution Science. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health; 2019. pp. 377-391. DOI: 10.1016/ activities. Environmental Science and Engineering (Subseries: Environmental Science). 2012;(9783642286803):217- 247. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-28681-0\_9

[28] Rajinipriya M, Nagalakshmaiah M, Robert M, Elkoun S. Importance of agricultural and industrial waste in the field of nanocellulose and recent industrial developments of wood based nanocellulose: A review. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2018;**6**(3):2807-2828. DOI: 10.1021/

acssuschemeng.7b03437

[29] Sangeetha J, Thangadurai D, Hospet R, Purushotham P, Manowade KR, Mujeeb MA, et al. Production of bionanomaterials from agricultural wastes. In: Nanotechnology: An Agricultural Paradigm. Nanomaterial and

Nanostructures; 2017. pp. 33-58. DOI:

Fernando AL. Ecofriendly strategies for the production of nanocellulose from agro-industrial wastes. In: European Biomass Conference and Exhibition Proceedings. 2019. pp. 1781-1784

[32] Satyamurthy P, Vigneshwaran N. A novel process for synthesis of spherical nanocellulose by controlled hydrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose using anaerobic microbial consortium. Enzyme and Microbial Technology.

[33] Ahmed M, Ahmaruzzaman M. Fabrication and characterization of novel lignocellulosic biomass tailored Fe3O4 nanocomposites: Influence of annealing temperature and chlorazol black sequestration. RSC Advances.

[30] García A, Gandini A, Labidi J, Belgacem N, Bras J. Industrial and crop wastes: A new source for nanocellulose biorefinery. Industrial Crops and Products. 2016;**93**:26-38. DOI: 10.1016/j.

10.1007/978-981-10-4573-8\_3

indcrop.2016.06.004

2013;**52**:20-25

2015;**5**:107466107473

[31] Pires JRA, Souza VGL,

[19] Nagendran R. Agricultural waste and pollution. In: Waste. Elsevier; 2011. pp. 341-355. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-381475-3.10024-5

[20] Pretty JN, Conway GR. Agriculture

[21] OECD: water pollution by fertilizers and animal wastes. World Farmers'

[23] Dikshit PR, Khatik SK. Contribution and potential of industrial wastes and sewage sludge for increasing crop production. Journal of Industrial Pollution Control. 2000;**16**(1):81-93

[24] Wolski T, Glinski J. Utilization of environment-polluting industrial wastes for agriculture and the fertilizer industry. Studies in Environmental Science. 1986;**29**(C):599-607. DOI: 10.1016/S0166-1116(08)70965-8

[25] Lal R. Pollution: Industrial waste. In: Encyclopedia of Soil Science. 3rd ed. Taylor and Francis Group; 2017. pp. 1762-1764. DOI: 10.1081/e-ess3-120006661

Biomaterials. 2019;**8**:1-14

[26] Zamani A, Poursattar Marjani A, Abdollahpour N. Synthesis of high surface area boehmite and alumina by using walnut shell as template. International Journal of Nano and

[27] Chandrappa R, Das DB. Wastes from industrial and commercial

as a global polluter. Agriculture.

[22] Saranraj P, Stella D. Impact of sugar mill effluent to environment and bioremediation: A review. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2014;**30**(3):299-316. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.

1989;**11**:1-16

Times; 1987. p. 2

wasj.2014.30.03.1656

**12**

[35] Kauldhar B, Yadav S. Turning waste to wealth: A direct process for recovery of nano-silica and lignin from paddy straw agro-waste. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;**194**:158-166

[36] Ali SM. Fabrication of a nanocomposite from an agricultural waste and its application as a biosorbent for organic pollutants. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2018;**15**:1169-1178

[37] Xue H, Chen Y, Liu X, Qian Q, Luo Y, Cui M, et al. Visible light-assisted efficient degradation of dye pollutants with biomass-supported TiO2 hybrids. Materials Science & Engineering, C: Materials for Biological Applications. 2018;**82**:197-203

[38] Yan D, Zhang H, Chen L, Zhu G, Wang Z, Xu H. Supercapacitive properties of MnO3 nanoparticles biosynthesized from banana peel extract. RSC Advances. 2014;**4**:23649-23652

[39] Cai H, Chen G, Peng C, Xu L, Zhu X, Zhang Z. Enhanced removal of fluoride by tea waste supported hydrous aluminium oxide nanoparticles: Anionic polyacrylamide mediated aluminium assembly and adsorption mechanism. RSC Advances. 2015;**5**:29266-29275

[40] Rajesh K, Rajesh KS, Dinesh PS. Natural and waste hydrocarbon precursors for the synthesis of carbon based nanomaterials: Graphene and CNTs. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016;**58**:976-1006

[41] Sinsinwar S, Sarkar M, Suriya K, Nithy P, Vadivel V. Use of agricultural waste (coconut shell) for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles and evaluation of their antibacterial activity against selected human pathogens. J. Micpath. 2018;**124**:30-37

[42] Cerchier P, Dabalà M, Brunelli K. Synthesis of SnO2 and Ag nanoparticles from electronic wastes with the assistance of ultrasound and microwaves. JOM. 2017;**69**(9):1583- 1588. DOI: 10.1007/s11837-017-2464-x

[43] Kaviani D. Synthesis of carbon nanoparticles from polystyrene wastes. International Journal of Sciences. 2015;**1**(8):53-57. DOI: 10.18483/ ijsci.797

[44] Baheti V, Naeem S, Militky J, Okrasa M, Tomkova B. Optimized preparation of activated carbon nanoparticles from acrylic fibrous wastes. Fibers and Polymers. 2015;**16**(10):2193-2201. DOI: 10.1007/ s12221-015-5364-0

[45] Kotsilkov S, Ivanov E, Vitanov NK. Release of graphene and carbon nanotubes from biodegradable poly(lactic acid) films during degradation and combustion: Risk associated with the end-of-life of nanocomposite food packaging materials. Materials. 2018;**11**(12). DOI: 10.3390/ma11122346

[46] Galvez A, Herlin-Boime N, Reynaud C, Clinard C, Rouzaud JN. Carbon nanoparticles from laser pyrolysis. Carbon. 2002;**40**(15):2775- 2789. DOI: 10.1016/S0008-6223(02) 00195-1

[47] Wang G, Liu L, Zhang L, Fu X, Liu M, Zhang Y, et al. Porous carbon nanosheets prepared from plastic wastes for supercapacitors. Journal of Electronic Materials. 2018;**47**(10):5816-5824

[48] Joseph Berkmans A, Jagannatham M, Priyanka S, Haridoss P. Synthesis of branched, nano channeled, ultrafine and nano carbon tubes from PET wastes using the arc discharge method. Waste Management. 2014;**34**(11):2139-2145. DOI: 10.1016/j. wasman.2014.07.004

[49] Guo X, Guo X, Zhi G, Wang Y, Jin G. Bundle-like carbon nanofibers grown from methane decomposition. Carbon. 2012;**50**(1):321-322. DOI: 10.1016/j. carbon.2011.07.046

[50] Güler Ö, Boyrazlı M, Başgöz Ö, Bostancı B. The synthesis of carbon nanostructures from tea plant wastes. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly. 2017;**56**(3):349-359. DOI: 10.1080/00084433.2017.1345467

[51] Bazargan A, Hui CW, McKay G. Porous carbons from plastic waste. Advances in Polymer Science. 2013;**266**:01-26. DOI: 10.1007/12\_2013\_253

[52] Meng S, Wang DH, Jin GQ, Wang YY, Guo XY. Preparation of SiC nanoparticles from plastic wastes. Materials Letters. 2010;**64**(24):2731- 2734. DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2010.09.007

[53] Adebisi JA, Agunsoye JO, Ahmed II, Bello SA, Haris M, Ramakokovhu MM, et al. Production of silicon nanoparticles from selected agricultural wastes. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.658

[54] Neustroev EP, Kurkina II, Mamaeva SN, Nogovitsyna MV. Synthesis, characterisation and applications of nanocomposites based on silver nanoparticles and graphen oxide. Journal of Structural Chemistry. 2018;**59**(4):847-852. DOI: 10.1134/ S0022476618040145

[55] Agunsoye JO, Adebisi JA, Bello SA, Haris M, Agboola JB, Hassan SB. Synthesis of silicon nanoparticles from cassava periderm by reduction method. In: Materials Science and Technology 2018, MS and T 2018. 2019. pp. 701-709. DOI: 10.7449/2018/ MST\_2018\_701\_709

[56] Espíndola-Gonzalez A, Martínez-Hernández AL, Angeles-Chávez C, Castaño VM, Velasco-Santos C. Novel crystalline SiO2 nanoparticles via annelids bioprocessing of agro-industrial wastes. Nanoscale Research Letters. 2010;**5**(9):1408-1417. DOI: 10.1007/s11671-010-9654-6

[57] Abdelbary S, Elgamal MS, Farrag A. Trends in heavy metals tolerance and uptake by *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*. In: Sriramulu D, editor. *Pseudomonas aeruginosa—*An Armory Within. IntechOpen; 2019. DOI: 10.5772/ intechopen.85875

[58] Wei H, Rodriguez K, Renneckar S, Vikesland PJ. Environmental science and engineering applications of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites. Environmental Science: Nano. 2014;**1**(4):302-316. DOI: 10.1039/ c4en00059e

[59] Soriano ML, Ruiz-Palomero C. Nanocellulose as promising material for environmental applications. Nanotechnology in Environmental Science. 2018;**2-2**:579-598. DOI: 10.1002/9783527808854.ch18

[60] Shak KPY, Pang YL, Mah SK. Nanocellulose: Recent advances and its prospects in environmental remediation. Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology. 2018;**9**(1):2479-2498. DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.232

[61] Gopakumar DA, Thomas S, Owolabi FAT, Thomas S, Nzihou A, Rizal S, et al. Nanocellulose based aerogels for varying engineering applications. In: Encyclopedia of Renewable and Sustainable Materials. 2020. pp. 155-165. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-12-803581-8.10549-1

**15**

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

Abraham R, Abraham S. Nanocellulose

[64] Védrine JC. Heterogeneous catalysis on metal oxides. Catalysts. 2017;**7**(11).

[62] Jose J, Thomas V, Vinod V,

based functional materials for supercapacitor applications. Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices. 2019;**4**(3):333-340. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsamd.2019.06.003

[63] Ganachari SV, Hublikar L, Yaradoddi JS, Math SS. Metal oxide nanomaterials for environmental applications. In: Handbook of Ecomaterials. Vol. 4. 2019. pp. 2357-2368. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-68255-6\_196

DOI: 10.3390/catal711034

[65] Saba N, Jawaid M, Fouad H, Alothman OY. Nanocarbon: Preparation, properties, and

applications. In: Nanocarbon and its Composites: Preparation, Properties and Applications. ACS Publications; 2018. pp. 327-354. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-08-102509-3.00009-2

[66] Pastrana-Martínez LM, Morales-Torres S, Papageorgiou SK, Katsaros FK, Romanos GE, Figueiredo JL, et al. Photocatalytic behaviour of nanocarbon-TiO2 composites and immobilization into hollow fibres. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2013;**142-143**:101-111. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.04.074

*Modern Trends in Uses of Different Wastes to Produce Nanoparticles and Their Environmental… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93315*

[62] Jose J, Thomas V, Vinod V, Abraham R, Abraham S. Nanocellulose based functional materials for supercapacitor applications. Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices. 2019;**4**(3):333-340. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsamd.2019.06.003

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

Synthesis of branched, nano channeled, ultrafine and nano carbon tubes from PET wastes using the arc discharge method. Waste Management.

In: Materials Science and

[56] Espíndola-Gonzalez A, Martínez-Hernández AL, Angeles-Chávez C, Castaño VM, Velasco-Santos C. Novel crystalline SiO2

MST\_2018\_701\_709

intechopen.85875

c4en00059e

Technology 2018, MS and T 2018. 2019. pp. 701-709. DOI: 10.7449/2018/

nanoparticles via annelids bioprocessing of agro-industrial wastes. Nanoscale Research Letters. 2010;**5**(9):1408-1417. DOI: 10.1007/s11671-010-9654-6

[57] Abdelbary S, Elgamal MS, Farrag A. Trends in heavy metals tolerance and uptake by *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*. In: Sriramulu D, editor. *Pseudomonas aeruginosa—*An Armory Within. IntechOpen; 2019. DOI: 10.5772/

[58] Wei H, Rodriguez K, Renneckar S, Vikesland PJ. Environmental science and engineering applications of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites.

Environmental Science: Nano. 2014;**1**(4):302-316. DOI: 10.1039/

[59] Soriano ML, Ruiz-Palomero C. Nanocellulose as promising material for environmental applications. Nanotechnology in Environmental Science. 2018;**2-2**:579-598. DOI: 10.1002/9783527808854.ch18

[60] Shak KPY, Pang YL, Mah SK. Nanocellulose: Recent advances and its prospects in environmental remediation. Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology. 2018;**9**(1):2479-2498.

DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.232

[61] Gopakumar DA, Thomas S, Owolabi FAT, Thomas S, Nzihou A, Rizal S, et al. Nanocellulose based aerogels for varying engineering applications. In: Encyclopedia of Renewable and Sustainable Materials. 2020. pp. 155-165. DOI: 10.1016/ b978-0-12-803581-8.10549-1

2014;**34**(11):2139-2145. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[49] Guo X, Guo X, Zhi G, Wang Y, Jin G. Bundle-like carbon nanofibers grown from methane decomposition. Carbon. 2012;**50**(1):321-322. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[50] Güler Ö, Boyrazlı M, Başgöz Ö, Bostancı B. The synthesis of carbon nanostructures from tea plant wastes. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly. 2017;**56**(3):349-359. DOI: 10.1080/00084433.2017.1345467

[51] Bazargan A, Hui CW, McKay G.

Porous carbons from plastic waste. Advances in Polymer Science. 2013;**266**:01-26. DOI:

[52] Meng S, Wang DH, Jin GQ, Wang YY, Guo XY. Preparation of SiC nanoparticles from plastic wastes. Materials Letters. 2010;**64**(24):2731- 2734. DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2010.09.007

[54] Neustroev EP, Kurkina II, Mamaeva SN, Nogovitsyna MV. Synthesis, characterisation and applications of nanocomposites based on silver nanoparticles and graphen oxide. Journal of Structural Chemistry. 2018;**59**(4):847-852. DOI: 10.1134/

S0022476618040145

[53] Adebisi JA, Agunsoye JO, Ahmed II, Bello SA, Haris M, Ramakokovhu MM, et al. Production of silicon nanoparticles from selected agricultural wastes. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.658

[55] Agunsoye JO, Adebisi JA, Bello SA, Haris M, Agboola JB, Hassan SB. Synthesis of silicon nanoparticles from cassava periderm by reduction method.

10.1007/12\_2013\_253

wasman.2014.07.004

carbon.2011.07.046

**14**

[63] Ganachari SV, Hublikar L, Yaradoddi JS, Math SS. Metal oxide nanomaterials for environmental applications. In: Handbook of Ecomaterials. Vol. 4. 2019. pp. 2357-2368. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-68255-6\_196

[64] Védrine JC. Heterogeneous catalysis on metal oxides. Catalysts. 2017;**7**(11). DOI: 10.3390/catal711034

[65] Saba N, Jawaid M, Fouad H, Alothman OY. Nanocarbon: Preparation, properties, and applications. In: Nanocarbon and its Composites: Preparation, Properties and Applications. ACS Publications; 2018. pp. 327-354. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-08-102509-3.00009-2

[66] Pastrana-Martínez LM, Morales-Torres S, Papageorgiou SK, Katsaros FK, Romanos GE, Figueiredo JL, et al. Photocatalytic behaviour of nanocarbon-TiO2 composites and immobilization into hollow fibres. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2013;**142-143**:101-111. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.04.074

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

nanocomposite.

**17**

**1. General introduction**

*Ali Salman Ali*

Application of Nanomaterials in

In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of

**Keywords:** nanomaterials, synthesis, solar cell, sonocatalyst, water purification

The term nanotechnology is the creation of functional material devices and systems through the control of matter in the range of 1–100 nm and the ability to work at the molecular level, atom by atom to create large structures with fundamentally new molecular organization. Nanotechnology is the design, fabrication, and application of nanostructures or nanomaterials and the fundamental understanding of the relationships between physical properties, or phenomena, and material dimensions. It is a new field or a new scientific domain. Nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter (10<sup>9</sup> m). About 10 hydrogen or fife silicon atoms are arranged in a straight line approximately representing 1 nm in length, and these materials are characterized by at least one dimension in the nanometer range. Nanomaterials are of interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties emerge. These emergent properties have great potential applications in electronics, medicine, and other fields. Nanomaterials are classified into nanostructured and nanophase/nanoparticle materials. The former refer to condensed bulk materials that are made of grains with grain sizes in the nanometer size range, while the latter are usually the dispersive nanoparticles [1]. According to this definition, a nanoparticle is considered to have zero dimensions (the dimensions' length is less than 100 nm). For example, wires, rods, and

nanofibers are objects with one dimension, while thin films, plates, multilayers, and network nanostructures express two dimensions. And more clearly, a sphere or

Environmental Improvement

### **Chapter 2**

## Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement

*Ali Salman Ali*

### **Abstract**

In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.

**Keywords:** nanomaterials, synthesis, solar cell, sonocatalyst, water purification

### **1. General introduction**

The term nanotechnology is the creation of functional material devices and systems through the control of matter in the range of 1–100 nm and the ability to work at the molecular level, atom by atom to create large structures with fundamentally new molecular organization. Nanotechnology is the design, fabrication, and application of nanostructures or nanomaterials and the fundamental understanding of the relationships between physical properties, or phenomena, and material dimensions. It is a new field or a new scientific domain. Nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter (10<sup>9</sup> m). About 10 hydrogen or fife silicon atoms are arranged in a straight line approximately representing 1 nm in length, and these materials are characterized by at least one dimension in the nanometer range.

Nanomaterials are of interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties emerge. These emergent properties have great potential applications in electronics, medicine, and other fields. Nanomaterials are classified into nanostructured and nanophase/nanoparticle materials. The former refer to condensed bulk materials that are made of grains with grain sizes in the nanometer size range, while the latter are usually the dispersive nanoparticles [1]. According to this definition, a nanoparticle is considered to have zero dimensions (the dimensions' length is less than 100 nm). For example, wires, rods, and nanofibers are objects with one dimension, while thin films, plates, multilayers, and network nanostructures express two dimensions. And more clearly, a sphere or

cluster of nanophase materials of zero dimension is represented as a point-like particle that is determined by three dimensions of nanomaterials, as demonstrated in **Figure 1** [2]. There are several important applications of nanomaterials such as aviation and space, chemical industry, optics, solar hydrogen, fuel cell, batteries, sensors, power generation, aeronautic industry, building/construction industry, automotive engineering, consumer electronics, thermoelectric devices, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic industry [3]. One of the most pressing challenges of our time is to find alternative energy sources which are environmentally friendly which is depending on used of nanomaterial's in different applications such as solar cell [4], paints [5] and other applications in the field of green chemistry [6].

### **2. Surface effects**

Chemical and physical properties of a material, such as bulk or nanoscale, depend on its surface properties. But the volume of bulk materials remains unchanged when it is subdivided into an ensemble of individual nanomaterials, and the collective surface area is greatly increased [7]. **Figure 2** describes stages of surface to volume increase for bulk materials.

Melting temperature of nanomaterials depends on the number of surface atoms and the increases of surface to volume ratio (S/V) lead to decreases in particle size and melting point because of surface atoms that have a much greater effect on chemical and physical properties of nanoparticle [8]. The surface to volume ratio for a material or substance made of nanoparticles has a significant effect on the properties of the material, when materials made up of nanoparticles have a relative larger surface area and compared to the same volume of material made up of bigger particles. For example, the surface area of a sphere, *<sup>A</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>4</sup>*πr*2, divided by its volume, *<sup>V</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>3</sup> *πr*3, produced a *3/r* as ratio between them, or in terms of diameter *d* produced the ratio (*6/d*). The ratio ð Þ *F* ¼ *<sup>A</sup>=<sup>V</sup>* for large thin plates with thickness *d* is

equal to (*1/d*) and this is the same as that for long cylindrical wires. Thus, the dispersion scales *F* equals to (*1/d*) or (*1/r*) for anything having a very small range of thickness *d*. The dispersion *F* represented the fraction of atoms at the surface and it scales with surface area divided by volume of sphere scales with the square of its

*Schematic drawing showing how surface to volume increases with decreased size.*

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

3

scales linearly with volume. The corner correction and the edge for large *N* can be

*<sup>F</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>6</sup>*n*<sup>2</sup> � <sup>12</sup>*<sup>n</sup>* <sup>þ</sup> <sup>8</sup>

*<sup>F</sup>* <sup>≈</sup> <sup>6</sup> *N*1*=*3

The two basic approaches to creating nanomaterials in a controlled and repeatable manner are the "top-down" and "bottom-up" techniques as shown in **Figure 3**, either for atoms to assemble together (break) or disassemble (dissociate) bulk solids into small pieces or to get on a few atoms from them. This is very important to use at different application fields, for example, in engineering, chemistry, physics, and even medicine. Former approaches play a very important role in modern industry and most likely in nanotechnology as well. In general, nanomaterials can be produced by different methods: mechanical, chemical, hydrothermal, sol-gel, chemical deposition in vacuum, pyrolysis, combustion, chemical co-precipitation, etc. According to these methods, particles are defined by a certain dimensional

In the physical methods, mechanical methods offer the least expensive ways to

produce nanomaterials in bulk (break the particles into nanostructures). But

. The total number of atoms *N* in this sphere

*<sup>n</sup>*<sup>3</sup> (1)

(2)

radius *r*, but its volume scales with *r*

Or nearly equal to:

**Figure 2.**

**3. Prepared nanoparticle**

**3.1 Top-down**

**19**

negligible, leading to the *N*�1/3 scaling [9]:

morphology and distribution can be obtained.

**Figure 1.** *Types of nanomaterials (0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D).*

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

cluster of nanophase materials of zero dimension is represented as a point-like particle that is determined by three dimensions of nanomaterials, as demonstrated in **Figure 1** [2]. There are several important applications of nanomaterials such as aviation and space, chemical industry, optics, solar hydrogen, fuel cell, batteries, sensors, power generation, aeronautic industry, building/construction industry, automotive engineering, consumer electronics, thermoelectric devices, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic industry [3]. One of the most pressing challenges of our time is to find alternative energy sources which are environmentally friendly which is depending on used of nanomaterial's in different applications such as solar cell [4],

Chemical and physical properties of a material, such as bulk or nanoscale, depend on its surface properties. But the volume of bulk materials remains

particles. For example, the surface area of a sphere, *<sup>A</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>4</sup>*πr*2, divided by its

*=*

unchanged when it is subdivided into an ensemble of individual nanomaterials, and the collective surface area is greatly increased [7]. **Figure 2** describes stages of

Melting temperature of nanomaterials depends on the number of surface atoms and the increases of surface to volume ratio (S/V) lead to decreases in particle size and melting point because of surface atoms that have a much greater effect on chemical and physical properties of nanoparticle [8]. The surface to volume ratio for a material or substance made of nanoparticles has a significant effect on the properties of the material, when materials made up of nanoparticles have a relative larger surface area and compared to the same volume of material made up of bigger

<sup>3</sup> *πr*3, produced a *3/r* as ratio between them, or in terms of diameter *d*

*<sup>V</sup>* for large thin plates with thickness *d* is

paints [5] and other applications in the field of green chemistry [6].

surface to volume increase for bulk materials.

produced the ratio (*6/d*). The ratio ð Þ *F* ¼ *<sup>A</sup>*

**2. Surface effects**

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

volume, *<sup>V</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>4</sup>

**Figure 1.**

**18**

*Types of nanomaterials (0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D).*

**Figure 2.** *Schematic drawing showing how surface to volume increases with decreased size.*

equal to (*1/d*) and this is the same as that for long cylindrical wires. Thus, the dispersion scales *F* equals to (*1/d*) or (*1/r*) for anything having a very small range of thickness *d*. The dispersion *F* represented the fraction of atoms at the surface and it scales with surface area divided by volume of sphere scales with the square of its radius *r*, but its volume scales with *r* 3 . The total number of atoms *N* in this sphere scales linearly with volume. The corner correction and the edge for large *N* can be negligible, leading to the *N*�1/3 scaling [9]:

$$F = \frac{6n^2 - 12n + 8}{n^3} \tag{1}$$

Or nearly equal to:

$$F \approx \frac{6}{N^{\sharp \circ}} \tag{2}$$

### **3. Prepared nanoparticle**

The two basic approaches to creating nanomaterials in a controlled and repeatable manner are the "top-down" and "bottom-up" techniques as shown in **Figure 3**, either for atoms to assemble together (break) or disassemble (dissociate) bulk solids into small pieces or to get on a few atoms from them. This is very important to use at different application fields, for example, in engineering, chemistry, physics, and even medicine. Former approaches play a very important role in modern industry and most likely in nanotechnology as well. In general, nanomaterials can be produced by different methods: mechanical, chemical, hydrothermal, sol-gel, chemical deposition in vacuum, pyrolysis, combustion, chemical co-precipitation, etc. According to these methods, particles are defined by a certain dimensional morphology and distribution can be obtained.

### **3.1 Top-down**

In the physical methods, mechanical methods offer the least expensive ways to produce nanomaterials in bulk (break the particles into nanostructures). But

represented by the most established method is sol-gel synthesis. Also, a new method called molecular self-assembly emerged. The areas of application for nanotechnology have different fields such as photonics, electronics, chemical sensors, biological sensors, and energy storage, and catalysis nanomaterial requires the manipulation into functional materials and devices. Self-assembly is the method important for designing and controlling the bottom-up assembly of the materials in the nanoscale range into structures of sheets, tubes, wires, nanoelectronic devices and drug deliv-

In this section, a mechanism for preparing nanomaterials such as TiO2, Al2O3, and

TiO2/α-Al2O3 will be explained according to the method of preparation by using sol-gel methods. The sol-gel method was developed in the 1960s mainly due to the need of new synthesis methods in the nuclear industry. The sol-gel process is defined as a gelation means that changes materials by polycondensation reactions from liquid state to gel state. If the dispersion of colloidal particles or polymers is stable in a solvent, it is called a sol, but particles can be amorphous or crystalline in the size of few nanometers. And on the other side, the gel consists of sol particles as continuous network in 3D, enclosed in a liquid phase [13]. There are several methods to prepare TiO2 nanoparticles using different materials such as tetraisopropyl orthotitanate (TIPT), titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), ethanol (EtOH), methanol (MeOH), n-hexane, hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), 1,4-cyclohexanediol (CHD),

triethanolamine (TEA), and TiO2-P25. In general, it is obtained on gel solution; the gel was filtered and washed subsequently by water and ethanol and then dried at room temperature to get on TiO2 nanoparticles [14]. Nanocomposites of TiO2 can be

On the other hand, Al2O3 nanoparticles are prepared by ethanol solution of aluminum nitrate Al (NO3)3.9H2O dissolved in pure water and then added to the solution ethanol from time to time until the color changes. The potential of hydrogen or acidic function (pH) was maintained between 2 and 3 during the synthesis. The white product was evaporated and the result was cooled to room temperature and then finally calcined at high temperature to get on nanoparticles [15]. For TiO2/ α-Al2O3, nanocomposite was prepared by adding TTIP to isopropyl alcohol under constant stirring and at room temperature (RT = 27°C) and then dispersed of nanoalumina in TTIP solution to form white suspension. Under vigorous stirring, the white gel was formed. Then, this gel was heated at high temperature in a Teflonlined autoclave. Finally, the collection powder of nanocomposite was yields by

The nature of all materials in bulk has different properties, which are depended on their structural properties (metals, semiconductors, and insulators), such as electrical, optical, and mechanical properties. Nanoparticles have properties that are different from small molecules; in this case, their chemistry and synthesis can be

used at different applications in a heterogeneous catalysis, in application of photocatalyst, to produce a hydrogen and electric energy by using a solar cells, gas sensor, white pigment for a paints and cosmetic products, corrosion-protective

coating, optical coating, and in electric devices varistors and etc.

ery systems [12].

during the gel [16].

**21**

**5. Properties of nanomaterials**

considered like complex mixtures.

**4. TiO2/α-Al2O3 nanocomposite**

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

**Figure 3.** *The scheme to prepare nanomaterial.*

chemical fabrication methods are always easy to upscale and many, such as anodizing, are widespread industrial processes [10]. Top-down approach is the process of making nanostructures that start with larger structures and break away to nanosize to form nanomaterials. To obtain nanoscale structures in this method, first, a large object that is (2–3) orders larger in one or two dimensions than the nanoscale desired is fabricated and then nanopatterning techniques are utilized to achieve smaller features. Top-down methods actually was developed firstly by and has been widely used in microelectronics industry. Methods of deposition and nanopatterning of thin films are more advanced, and this approach has been pushed further into the regime of nanofabrication [11]. Also, applying the top-down assembly process of nanocomponents over large areas is difficult and expensive.

### **3.2 Bottom-up**

The building of nanostructures starting with small components such as atoms or molecules is called bottom-up approach. The bottom-up techniques make use of self-processes for ordering of supramolecular or solid-state architectures from the atomic to the mesoscopic scale. The methods of bottom-up include gas-phase and liquid-phase methods. For two methods, fabrication of nanomaterials was controlled when starting from the single atom or molecule. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and plasma arcing are called gas-phase methods, whereas liquid-phase (LP)

represented by the most established method is sol-gel synthesis. Also, a new method called molecular self-assembly emerged. The areas of application for nanotechnology have different fields such as photonics, electronics, chemical sensors, biological sensors, and energy storage, and catalysis nanomaterial requires the manipulation into functional materials and devices. Self-assembly is the method important for designing and controlling the bottom-up assembly of the materials in the nanoscale range into structures of sheets, tubes, wires, nanoelectronic devices and drug delivery systems [12].

### **4. TiO2/α-Al2O3 nanocomposite**

In this section, a mechanism for preparing nanomaterials such as TiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2/α-Al2O3 will be explained according to the method of preparation by using sol-gel methods. The sol-gel method was developed in the 1960s mainly due to the need of new synthesis methods in the nuclear industry. The sol-gel process is defined as a gelation means that changes materials by polycondensation reactions from liquid state to gel state. If the dispersion of colloidal particles or polymers is stable in a solvent, it is called a sol, but particles can be amorphous or crystalline in the size of few nanometers. And on the other side, the gel consists of sol particles as continuous network in 3D, enclosed in a liquid phase [13]. There are several methods to prepare TiO2 nanoparticles using different materials such as tetraisopropyl orthotitanate (TIPT), titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), ethanol (EtOH), methanol (MeOH), n-hexane, hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), 1,4-cyclohexanediol (CHD), triethanolamine (TEA), and TiO2-P25. In general, it is obtained on gel solution; the gel was filtered and washed subsequently by water and ethanol and then dried at room temperature to get on TiO2 nanoparticles [14]. Nanocomposites of TiO2 can be used at different applications in a heterogeneous catalysis, in application of photocatalyst, to produce a hydrogen and electric energy by using a solar cells, gas sensor, white pigment for a paints and cosmetic products, corrosion-protective coating, optical coating, and in electric devices varistors and etc.

On the other hand, Al2O3 nanoparticles are prepared by ethanol solution of aluminum nitrate Al (NO3)3.9H2O dissolved in pure water and then added to the solution ethanol from time to time until the color changes. The potential of hydrogen or acidic function (pH) was maintained between 2 and 3 during the synthesis. The white product was evaporated and the result was cooled to room temperature and then finally calcined at high temperature to get on nanoparticles [15]. For TiO2/ α-Al2O3, nanocomposite was prepared by adding TTIP to isopropyl alcohol under constant stirring and at room temperature (RT = 27°C) and then dispersed of nanoalumina in TTIP solution to form white suspension. Under vigorous stirring, the white gel was formed. Then, this gel was heated at high temperature in a Teflonlined autoclave. Finally, the collection powder of nanocomposite was yields by during the gel [16].

### **5. Properties of nanomaterials**

The nature of all materials in bulk has different properties, which are depended on their structural properties (metals, semiconductors, and insulators), such as electrical, optical, and mechanical properties. Nanoparticles have properties that are different from small molecules; in this case, their chemistry and synthesis can be considered like complex mixtures.

chemical fabrication methods are always easy to upscale and many, such as anodizing, are widespread industrial processes [10]. Top-down approach is the process of making nanostructures that start with larger structures and break away to nanosize to form nanomaterials. To obtain nanoscale structures in this method, first, a large object that is (2–3) orders larger in one or two dimensions than the nanoscale desired is fabricated and then nanopatterning techniques are utilized to achieve smaller features. Top-down methods actually was developed firstly by and has been

nanopatterning of thin films are more advanced, and this approach has been pushed further into the regime of nanofabrication [11]. Also, applying the top-down assembly process of nanocomponents over large areas is difficult and expensive.

The building of nanostructures starting with small components such as atoms or molecules is called bottom-up approach. The bottom-up techniques make use of self-processes for ordering of supramolecular or solid-state architectures from the atomic to the mesoscopic scale. The methods of bottom-up include gas-phase and liquid-phase methods. For two methods, fabrication of nanomaterials was controlled when starting from the single atom or molecule. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and plasma arcing are called gas-phase methods, whereas liquid-phase (LP)

widely used in microelectronics industry. Methods of deposition and

**3.2 Bottom-up**

**20**

**Figure 3.**

*The scheme to prepare nanomaterial.*

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The ability of the molecules to contact of nanoparticles on the surface and exchange with other molecules leads to the indicates that will be careful consideration of the chemistry of nanoparticles and how it relates to their fate in surface waters and sediments, this is a key to predicting their final fate [17]. When one of the three spatial dimensions is of a size comparable or smaller to wave length of de Broglie ð Þ *λ<sup>B</sup>* of the charge carrier of electrons and holes or the wavelength of light, the crystalline materials are destroyed by the periodic boundary conditions or change the atomic density on the surface of amorphous materials. Because of this property, a lot of the physical properties of nanomaterials are quite different from bulk materials, yielding a wide variety of new applications [18].

### **5.1 Mechanical properties**

The mechanical properties of materials depend essentially on the nature of bonding that holds their constituent atoms and their microstructures in a variety of length scales. Mechanical deformation can be either elastic (reversible) or plastic (irreversible) [19]. Elastic materials respond to stress fields via strain fields; liquids respond via viscous strain rates; and complex fluids are often describable via frequency-dependent viscoelastic responses. Many properties of crystals, magnets, liquid crystals, superconductors, superfluids, and field theories of the early universe can be described by focusing on long length scales, assuming that the materials are close in equilibrium. On the other hand, plastic materials can be defined as irreversible deformation, and different mechanisms may be responsible: dislocation motion, vacancy motion, twinning, phase transformation, or viscous flow of amorphous materials [20]. The proportional relation between the stress and the elastic strain is given by Hooke's law, which can be written as follows:

$$
\sigma\infty\varepsilon\tag{3}
$$

boundary contribution, which depends on DC bias voltages but grain contribution does not depend on it. The grain boundaries in nanocrystalline materials often have significant influence on the flow of electronic current. The microstructure at scale of length is smaller or similar to the mean free path of conduction electrons, this produced a grain boundaries a main source of eight conduction electrons scattering [22]. The measurement of the electrical properties is also important because the connectivity of a composite system from SEM and TEM micrographs cannot be deduced alone. The DC electrical conductivity (σdc) of the crystal was calculated

where R is the measured resistance, t is the thickness of the sample, and A is the area of the face in contact with the electrode. The temperature variation of conduc-

where *σ<sup>o</sup>* is a constant depending on material, E is the activation energy, T is the

On the other hand, the AC conductivity of the media (composites) (σm) is the

In practice, σir incorporates both, a usually very small, DC conductivity and the

When light incidents from one medium into another, several things are happened see **Figure 4**. Some of the light radiation may be transmitted through the medium, some will be absorbed, and some will be reflected at the interface between the two media. The total intensity ð Þ *Io* of the incident light striking a surface is equal to the sum of the absorbed ð Þ *IA* , reflected ð Þ *IoR* , and transmitted ð Þ *IT* intensities, that is

dielectric polarization loss term (ωε0εii). The expressions for σ<sup>c</sup> and σ<sup>i</sup> can be

*σdc* ¼ *t=RA* (6)

*σdc* ¼ *σ<sup>o</sup>* exp ½ � �*E=kT* (7)

*σ<sup>m</sup>* ¼ *σmr* þ *iσmi* (8)

*σ<sup>c</sup>* ¼ *σcr* þ *iσci* (9)

*σ<sup>c</sup>* ¼ *σcr* (10)

*σ<sup>i</sup>* ¼ *σir* þ *iσii* (11)

*σ<sup>i</sup>* ¼ *iωε*0*εir* (12)

using the relation:

where σii = ωε0εir.

**5.3 Optical properties**

**23**

tivity is given by using Stuke's Equation [23]:

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absolute temperature, and k is the Boltzmann's constant.

sum of the real and imaginary conductivities, which are given by:

For ideal conductivity where (σcr >> σci) Eq. (9) read as:

For the insulating component, the conductivity is given by:

Eq. (11) can be approximated when (σ<sup>r</sup> < <iσii) as:

dispersive and/or temperature-dependent. [24].

The conductivity of the more conducting component is given by:

$$
\sigma = Y \varepsilon \tag{4}
$$

where *σ* is the stress, *ε* is the strain, and Y is the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus.

The size of grain for polycrystalline materials, depending on strength and hardness, is well established as Hall-Petch relationship, which indicates that the yield stress and hardness are inverse to the square root of the grain size. This strengthening at reduced grain sizes is attributed to the pile-up of dislocations at grain boundaries. However, when it comes to Nanocrystalline regime, the conventional Frank-Read dislocation sources ceases to control the deformation due to the stress to bow out a dislocation approaches the theoretical shear strength [21]. The relation between yield stress and grain size is described mathematically by:

$$
\sigma\_\circ = \sigma\_o + \frac{k\_\circ}{\sqrt{d}} \tag{5}
$$

where Eq. (5) is called Hall-Petch relationship, and *ky* is the strengthening coefficient, *σ<sup>o</sup>* is a materials constant for the starting stress for dislocation movement, *d* is the grain diameter, and *σ<sup>y</sup>* is the yield stress.

### **5.2 Electrical properties**

The electrical conductivity, DC, for nanoparticle materials (or metals) is affected by the microstructure. The value of conductivity (DC) appears by grain

The ability of the molecules to contact of nanoparticles on the surface and exchange with other molecules leads to the indicates that will be careful consideration of the chemistry of nanoparticles and how it relates to their fate in surface waters and sediments, this is a key to predicting their final fate [17]. When one of the three spatial dimensions is of a size comparable or smaller to wave length of de Broglie ð Þ *λ<sup>B</sup>* of the charge carrier of electrons and holes or the wavelength of light, the crystalline materials are destroyed by the periodic boundary conditions or change the atomic density on the surface of amorphous materials. Because of this property, a lot of the physical properties of nanomaterials are quite different from

The mechanical properties of materials depend essentially on the nature of bonding that holds their constituent atoms and their microstructures in a variety of length scales. Mechanical deformation can be either elastic (reversible) or plastic (irreversible) [19]. Elastic materials respond to stress fields via strain fields; liquids respond via viscous strain rates; and complex fluids are often describable via frequency-dependent viscoelastic responses. Many properties of crystals, magnets, liquid crystals, superconductors, superfluids, and field theories of the early universe can be described by focusing on long length scales, assuming that the materials are close in equilibrium. On the other hand, plastic materials can be defined as irreversible deformation, and different mechanisms may be responsible: dislocation motion, vacancy motion, twinning, phase transformation, or viscous flow of amorphous materials [20]. The proportional relation between the stress and the elastic

where *σ* is the stress, *ε* is the strain, and Y is the modulus of elasticity or Young's

The size of grain for polycrystalline materials, depending on strength and hardness, is well established as Hall-Petch relationship, which indicates that the yield stress and hardness are inverse to the square root of the grain size. This strengthening at reduced grain sizes is attributed to the pile-up of dislocations at grain boundaries. However, when it comes to Nanocrystalline regime, the conventional Frank-Read dislocation sources ceases to control the deformation due to the stress to bow out a dislocation approaches the theoretical shear strength [21]. The relation

*σ*∝*ε* (3) *σ* ¼ *Yε* (4)

p (5)

bulk materials, yielding a wide variety of new applications [18].

strain is given by Hooke's law, which can be written as follows:

between yield stress and grain size is described mathematically by:

ment, *d* is the grain diameter, and *σ<sup>y</sup>* is the yield stress.

**5.2 Electrical properties**

**22**

*σ<sup>y</sup>* ¼ *σ<sup>o</sup>* þ

where Eq. (5) is called Hall-Petch relationship, and *ky* is the strengthening coefficient, *σ<sup>o</sup>* is a materials constant for the starting stress for dislocation move-

The electrical conductivity, DC, for nanoparticle materials (or metals) is affected by the microstructure. The value of conductivity (DC) appears by grain

*ky* ffiffiffi *d*

**5.1 Mechanical properties**

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modulus.

boundary contribution, which depends on DC bias voltages but grain contribution does not depend on it. The grain boundaries in nanocrystalline materials often have significant influence on the flow of electronic current. The microstructure at scale of length is smaller or similar to the mean free path of conduction electrons, this produced a grain boundaries a main source of eight conduction electrons scattering [22]. The measurement of the electrical properties is also important because the connectivity of a composite system from SEM and TEM micrographs cannot be deduced alone. The DC electrical conductivity (σdc) of the crystal was calculated using the relation:

$$
\sigma\_{dc} = \text{t/RA} \tag{6}
$$

where R is the measured resistance, t is the thickness of the sample, and A is the area of the face in contact with the electrode. The temperature variation of conductivity is given by using Stuke's Equation [23]:

$$
\sigma\_{dc} = \sigma\_o \exp\left[-E/kT\right] \tag{7}
$$

where *σ<sup>o</sup>* is a constant depending on material, E is the activation energy, T is the absolute temperature, and k is the Boltzmann's constant.

On the other hand, the AC conductivity of the media (composites) (σm) is the sum of the real and imaginary conductivities, which are given by:

$$
\sigma\_m = \sigma\_{mr} + i\sigma\_{mi} \tag{8}
$$

The conductivity of the more conducting component is given by:

$$
\sigma\_{\mathfrak{c}} = \sigma\_{\mathfrak{c}\mathfrak{r}} + i\sigma\_{\mathfrak{c}\mathfrak{i}} \tag{9}
$$

For ideal conductivity where (σcr >> σci) Eq. (9) read as:

$$
\sigma\_{\mathfrak{c}} = \sigma\_{\mathfrak{c}\mathfrak{r}} \tag{10}
$$

For the insulating component, the conductivity is given by:

$$
\sigma\_i = \sigma\_{ir} + i\sigma\_{ii} \tag{11}
$$

where σii = ωε0εir. Eq. (11) can be approximated when (σ<sup>r</sup> < <iσii) as:

$$
\sigma\_i = i a \sigma\_0 \varepsilon\_{ir} \tag{12}
$$

In practice, σir incorporates both, a usually very small, DC conductivity and the dielectric polarization loss term (ωε0εii). The expressions for σ<sup>c</sup> and σ<sup>i</sup> can be dispersive and/or temperature-dependent. [24].

### **5.3 Optical properties**

When light incidents from one medium into another, several things are happened see **Figure 4**. Some of the light radiation may be transmitted through the medium, some will be absorbed, and some will be reflected at the interface between the two media. The total intensity ð Þ *Io* of the incident light striking a surface is equal to the sum of the absorbed ð Þ *IA* , reflected ð Þ *IoR* , and transmitted ð Þ *IT* intensities, that is

$$I\_o = I\_T + I\_R + I\_A \tag{13}$$

where T, A, R are transmissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity, respectively. And

$$T = {}^{I\_{\nabla}}\!\!/\_{I\_{\bullet}}\tag{14}$$

*n*ð Þ¼ *λ* 3*:*2346 þ

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nanocomposites using known techniques that are as follows:

**6.1 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)**

contrast transfer function (CTF) as:

**25**

In recent years, it was found that the nanomaterials are very important, and they keep growing in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The researchers used various nanomaterials in the synthesis and application process, due to their potential in the application of science and industry. For example, biocomposite nanomaterials are applied directly and used to replace natural materials to work or to be in contact with the living systems. There are several methods to determine the type of material in the range of nanoscale [27]. Nanoparticle formation is analyzed by using UVvisible spectroscopy and characterization of nanoparticles by SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, and EXD. Each method is based on measurements that differ from the other and can be carefully compared. Many of these methods focus on examining particle size at the nanoscale to determine the average particle size of a sample. The role properties of nanoparticles depend on the size and shape, and few particle size distributions of commercial products are narrow in range. In this chapter, the focus is on diagnosing

A microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through an ultra-thin specimen, and the interaction with the specimen as it passes through it is called transmission electron microscopy (TEM). When the electron beams are transmitted through the specimen as shown in **Figure 5**, the strong interaction between the specimen (atoms) and the electrons duo helps form an image. The image detected by a sensor such as a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera or focused on the device to be an image, such as a fluorescent screen, on a layer of photographic film [28]. Specimens are needed to be very thin, usually below 100 nm in thickness, to achieve good signal-to-noise ratio and sufficient contrast in

transmission. Transmission electron microscopy techniques provide two-

tration of nanoparticles in solution [30]. Typically, the calculated sizes are

expressed as a sphere diameter that the particle has the same projected area as the projected image. Particle size analysis was done using manual or automatic techniques. The first analysis used to get a mean result by obtain a linear dimensional measure of the particle divided by the number of particles, it's usually based on the marking device. To get a clear image, the preparation was elaborated and is slow with few particles being examined [31]. The resolution of image is related to the amplitude and phase alterations in the electron beams that are determined by the

*CTF* ¼ *A q*ð Þ*e*

*iX q*ð Þ (22)

dimensional images of nanoparticles; these images can be used to produce numberbased size distributions, but nanoparticles have all three external dimensions on the nanoscale, and performance properties often depend on their physical-chemical characteristics, that is, size, shape, surface structure, and texture [29]. The perfect sample of transmission electron microscopy for nanoparticle size analysis is one with a large number of individual particles in nanoscale within the desired TEM micrograph field of view, but without excessive agglomeration or bunching of nanoparticles. There are two factors that may have an effect on the TEM grid of the nanoparticle number density: the derivatization efficiency process and the concen-

**6. Characterization methods**

0*:*3698

*<sup>λ</sup>*<sup>2</sup> � <sup>0</sup>*:*<sup>028</sup> (21)

$$\mathbf{A} = \mathbf{l}\_{\mathbb{A}} \mathbf{\!/}\_{\mathbf{l}\_{\bullet}} \tag{15}$$

$$R = {}^{I\_{\emptyset}}\!/\!\_{\mathfrak{l}\_{\bullet}} \tag{16}$$

So Eq. (13) becomes:

$$\mathbf{1} = T + \mathbf{R} + \mathbf{A} \tag{17}$$

One can estimate the absorption coefficient (α) of thin films after the correction of reflectivity as:

$$a = \frac{2.303}{t}A\tag{18}$$

where t is the thickness of the material.

It is very important to study α in order to define types of the electron transition, such as allowed direct, forbidden direct, allowed indirect, and forbidden indirect. The transition is allowed if α > 104 , when α < 104 the transition is forbidden direct. From the absorption coefficient data, one can calculate the extinction coefficient (K) as [25]:

$$
\lambda = \frac{4\pi}{a}K\tag{19}
$$

where λ is the wavelength of the incident light.

An alternative way to boost optical absorption is to use nanostructure-based devices to attain multiple band gaps based on the size of the quantum dots or quantum wells (based on quantum mechanics, the size of the dot or well determines the band gap of the material). For silicon as an example, the nanostructure results in direct band gap material, and the optical absorption is enhanced due to an increase of oscillator strength. The value of the oscillator strength was one of silicon nanostructures and the reduced mass is taken as a half mass of electron rest mass. For a cluster of 18 atoms, the band gap energy is taken as (1.82) eV with radius 1 nm. The absorption coefficient for nanostructure is given as [26]:

$$a\_d \cong \frac{5.4 \times 10^5}{n(\lambda)} \left[\frac{1.24}{\lambda} - 1.82\right]^{\frac{1}{2}} \left(cm^{-1}\right) \tag{20}$$

where λ, is measured in *μ*m and *n*ð Þ*λ* is the refractive index given by Herzberger's formula.

**Figure 4.** *Diagram of the interaction of light with matter.*

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

$$m(\lambda) = 3.2346 + \frac{0.3698}{\lambda^2 - 0.028} \tag{21}$$

### **6. Characterization methods**

*Io* ¼ *IT* þ *IR* þ *IA* (13)

1 ¼ *T* þ *R* þ *A* (17)

, when α < 104 the transition is forbidden direct. From

*Io* (14)

*Io* (15)

*Io* (16)

*A* (18)

*<sup>α</sup> <sup>K</sup>* (19)

*cm*�<sup>1</sup> (20)

where T, A, R are transmissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity, respectively.

*T* ¼ *IT=*

*A* ¼ *IA=*

*R* ¼ *IR=*

One can estimate the absorption coefficient (α) of thin films after the correction

*<sup>α</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>2</sup>*:*<sup>303</sup> *t*

It is very important to study α in order to define types of the electron transition, such as allowed direct, forbidden direct, allowed indirect, and forbidden indirect. The

the absorption coefficient data, one can calculate the extinction coefficient (K) as [25]:

*<sup>λ</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>4</sup>*<sup>π</sup>*

An alternative way to boost optical absorption is to use nanostructure-based devices to attain multiple band gaps based on the size of the quantum dots or quantum wells (based on quantum mechanics, the size of the dot or well determines the band gap of the material). For silicon as an example, the nanostructure results in direct band gap material, and the optical absorption is enhanced due to an increase

1*:*24

where λ, is measured in *μ*m and *n*ð Þ*λ* is the refractive index given by Herzberger's

*<sup>λ</sup>* � <sup>1</sup>*:*<sup>82</sup> <sup>1</sup>

2

of oscillator strength. The value of the oscillator strength was one of silicon nanostructures and the reduced mass is taken as a half mass of electron rest mass. For a cluster of 18 atoms, the band gap energy is taken as (1.82) eV with radius 1

nm. The absorption coefficient for nanostructure is given as [26]:

<sup>5</sup>*:*<sup>4</sup> � <sup>10</sup><sup>5</sup> *n*ð Þ*λ*

And

So Eq. (13) becomes:

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transition is allowed if α > 104

where t is the thickness of the material.

where λ is the wavelength of the incident light.

*α<sup>d</sup>* ffi

of reflectivity as:

formula.

**Figure 4.**

**24**

*Diagram of the interaction of light with matter.*

In recent years, it was found that the nanomaterials are very important, and they keep growing in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The researchers used various nanomaterials in the synthesis and application process, due to their potential in the application of science and industry. For example, biocomposite nanomaterials are applied directly and used to replace natural materials to work or to be in contact with the living systems. There are several methods to determine the type of material in the range of nanoscale [27]. Nanoparticle formation is analyzed by using UVvisible spectroscopy and characterization of nanoparticles by SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, and EXD. Each method is based on measurements that differ from the other and can be carefully compared. Many of these methods focus on examining particle size at the nanoscale to determine the average particle size of a sample. The role properties of nanoparticles depend on the size and shape, and few particle size distributions of commercial products are narrow in range. In this chapter, the focus is on diagnosing nanocomposites using known techniques that are as follows:

### **6.1 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)**

A microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through an ultra-thin specimen, and the interaction with the specimen as it passes through it is called transmission electron microscopy (TEM). When the electron beams are transmitted through the specimen as shown in **Figure 5**, the strong interaction between the specimen (atoms) and the electrons duo helps form an image. The image detected by a sensor such as a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera or focused on the device to be an image, such as a fluorescent screen, on a layer of photographic film [28]. Specimens are needed to be very thin, usually below 100 nm in thickness, to achieve good signal-to-noise ratio and sufficient contrast in transmission. Transmission electron microscopy techniques provide twodimensional images of nanoparticles; these images can be used to produce numberbased size distributions, but nanoparticles have all three external dimensions on the nanoscale, and performance properties often depend on their physical-chemical characteristics, that is, size, shape, surface structure, and texture [29]. The perfect sample of transmission electron microscopy for nanoparticle size analysis is one with a large number of individual particles in nanoscale within the desired TEM micrograph field of view, but without excessive agglomeration or bunching of nanoparticles. There are two factors that may have an effect on the TEM grid of the nanoparticle number density: the derivatization efficiency process and the concentration of nanoparticles in solution [30]. Typically, the calculated sizes are expressed as a sphere diameter that the particle has the same projected area as the projected image. Particle size analysis was done using manual or automatic techniques. The first analysis used to get a mean result by obtain a linear dimensional measure of the particle divided by the number of particles, it's usually based on the marking device. To get a clear image, the preparation was elaborated and is slow with few particles being examined [31]. The resolution of image is related to the amplitude and phase alterations in the electron beams that are determined by the contrast transfer function (CTF) as:

$$\text{CTF} = A(q)e^{i\mathbf{X}(q)} \tag{22}$$

SEM needed to drying to get on a powder from it before mounted on a sample holder and coating a conductive metal on the surface of sample, such as gold, using a sputter coater. The surface sample is scanned when a high energy stream of electrons is incident on it [33]. The high-resolution magnified images produced when the revealing details about less than 1–5 nm in size and for narrow electron beam yields a characteristic three-dimensional for understanding the surface sam-

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is defined as the nondestructive technique that provides detailed information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of materials. When the beam of monochromatic incident on the target materials the interaction between them is happened and the scattering of those X-rays from atoms within the target material can be illustrated in

**Figure 7**. Bragg's law was used to explain the interference pattern of X-rays

ple structure.

**Figure 6.**

**27**

*Schematic form of SEM.*

**6.3 X-ray diffraction (XRD)**

scattered by crystals structure the diffraction of

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

**Figure 5.** *Schematic form of transmission electron microscopy.*

where A (q) describes the diffraction diagram truncation by the aperture of the objective lens and eiX qð Þ is the phase function, which is described as the distortion of the output wave by the objective lens.

### **6.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)**

The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is an electron microscope that creates images for the sample surface by scanning it with a high energy stream of electrons [32]. The scheme of SEM is illustrated in **Figure 6**.

The surface morphology of the materials was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique. This technique is different from transmission electron microscopy at site of specimen and intensity of electron beams. For TEM, the electron beam penetrates the sample, but for SEM, the electron beam is incident on the surface of the sample. SEM provides information about surface morphology and composition of materials. There are several advantages for SEM technique in morphological and sizing analysis, but the information is limited for distribution size and true average population. The investigate of solution of nanoparticles with

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

SEM needed to drying to get on a powder from it before mounted on a sample holder and coating a conductive metal on the surface of sample, such as gold, using a sputter coater. The surface sample is scanned when a high energy stream of electrons is incident on it [33]. The high-resolution magnified images produced when the revealing details about less than 1–5 nm in size and for narrow electron beam yields a characteristic three-dimensional for understanding the surface sample structure.

### **6.3 X-ray diffraction (XRD)**

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is defined as the nondestructive technique that provides detailed information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of materials. When the beam of monochromatic incident on the target materials the interaction between them is happened and the scattering of those X-rays from atoms within the target material can be illustrated in **Figure 7**. Bragg's law was used to explain the interference pattern of X-rays scattered by crystals structure the diffraction of

**Figure 6.** *Schematic form of SEM.*

where A (q) describes the diffraction diagram truncation by the aperture of the objective lens and eiX qð Þ is the phase function, which is described as the distortion of

The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is an electron microscope that creates images for the sample surface by scanning it with a high energy stream of electrons

The surface morphology of the materials was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique. This technique is different from transmission electron microscopy at site of specimen and intensity of electron beams. For TEM, the electron beam penetrates the sample, but for SEM, the electron beam is incident on the surface of the sample. SEM provides information about surface morphology and composition of materials. There are several advantages for SEM technique in morphological and sizing analysis, but the information is limited for distribution size and true average population. The investigate of solution of nanoparticles with

the output wave by the objective lens.

*Schematic form of transmission electron microscopy.*

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**Figure 5.**

**26**

**6.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)**

[32]. The scheme of SEM is illustrated in **Figure 6**.

The Scherrer formula was used by most material scientists as the simplest method of particle size determination. The formula proposed by P. Scherrer in 1918 describes the broadening of diffraction reflection peaks as a function of the average

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*<sup>β</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> *<sup>k</sup> <sup>λ</sup>*

*<sup>k</sup>* <sup>¼</sup> <sup>2</sup> ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

diffraction Al2O3 peaks can be well indexed to pure α-Al2O3 (JCPDS Card no. 880826). The appearance of diffraction peaks in TiO2/Al2O3 XRD pattern corresponding to (101) and other planes is in good agreement with the standard XRD peaks of Anatase TiO2 (JCPDS Card No. 040477). The average crystal sizes of

nanocomposite materials for TiO2/α-Al2O3 (21.4 nm) are larger than Al2O3

(8.1 nm), which leads to get a good mix of NPS.

tems, and magneto-optic and optical device.

alternative energy [36].

**7.1 Solar cell**

**29**

**7. Nanotechnology applications in the environment**

and k is the shape factor, λ is the incident x-ray wavelength (0.15040 nm for CuK), β is full width at half maximum (FWHM), and *φ* is diffraction angle at

XRD pattern of Al2O3 and TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposite is shown in **Figure 8**. The

Nanoparticles that are produced deliberately using specific processes are called engineered or manufactured nanoparticles, for example, fullerenes and CNTs. With regard to environmental issues, the system of one dimensional (1D), thin films, or surfaces of two dimensional (2D), this can be used in applications of electronics, chemistry, and engineering as thin films at the range of sizes (1–100 nm) or monolayer in the field of solar cells or catalysis. These thin films are inserted in different technological applications, including development of a new generation of environmental sensing systems, chemical and biological sensors, fiber-optic sys-

The sun sends an infinite light free from environmental pollution and noise is a renewable source of energy. The energy drawn from the sun can easily compensate for nonrenewable sources of energy such as fossil fuels and petroleum deposits on the earth. The solar cells have passed through a large number of improvement steps from one generation to another, because of their importance for the generation of

Photovoltaic (PV) is related to the devices such as solar cell that directly converts sunlight into electricity. The solar cell is the elementary building block of the photovoltaic technology. Silicon is one of the most common semiconductor materials that is used to make solar cells. One of the most common properties of semiconductors that makes them most useful is that their conductivity may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. There are several types of solar cells, and they are either cut from a single crystal rod or from a block composed of many crystals and are correspondingly called monocrystalline or multicrystalline silicon solar cells and nanocrystal-based solar cells [37]. Most solar

*D cosφ*

ð Þ *ln* <sup>2</sup> *<sup>=</sup><sup>π</sup>* <sup>p</sup> <sup>≈</sup>0*:*<sup>94</sup> (25)

(24)

particle size D [16]:

where k is equal to:

maximum intensity peak.

**Figure 7.** *Schematic diagram of the interaction of the X-ray with mater.*

**Figure 8.** *XRD pattern of Al2O3 and TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposite.*

X-rays described by [34]:

$$m\lambda = 2d\sin\theta\tag{23}$$

where n is an integer, λ is the wavelength of the X-rays, d is the interplanar spacing generating the diffraction, and θ is the diffraction angle.

X-Ray diffraction (XRD) can be considered as a good technique for analyzing the nanostructures, because the width and shape of reflections yield information about the substructure of the materials (sizes of microcrystallites, microdistortions of a lattice, dislocation structures, etc.). There are several approaches to analyze the X-ray diffraction line profiles, with the Scherrer, Williamson-Hall, and Warren-Averbach methods being most widely applied [35].

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

The Scherrer formula was used by most material scientists as the simplest method of particle size determination. The formula proposed by P. Scherrer in 1918 describes the broadening of diffraction reflection peaks as a function of the average particle size D [16]:

$$
\beta = k \frac{\lambda}{D \cos \rho} \tag{24}
$$

where k is equal to:

$$k = 2\sqrt{(\ln 2)/\pi} \approx 0.94\tag{25}$$

and k is the shape factor, λ is the incident x-ray wavelength (0.15040 nm for CuK), β is full width at half maximum (FWHM), and *φ* is diffraction angle at maximum intensity peak.

XRD pattern of Al2O3 and TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposite is shown in **Figure 8**. The diffraction Al2O3 peaks can be well indexed to pure α-Al2O3 (JCPDS Card no. 880826). The appearance of diffraction peaks in TiO2/Al2O3 XRD pattern corresponding to (101) and other planes is in good agreement with the standard XRD peaks of Anatase TiO2 (JCPDS Card No. 040477). The average crystal sizes of nanocomposite materials for TiO2/α-Al2O3 (21.4 nm) are larger than Al2O3 (8.1 nm), which leads to get a good mix of NPS.

### **7. Nanotechnology applications in the environment**

Nanoparticles that are produced deliberately using specific processes are called engineered or manufactured nanoparticles, for example, fullerenes and CNTs. With regard to environmental issues, the system of one dimensional (1D), thin films, or surfaces of two dimensional (2D), this can be used in applications of electronics, chemistry, and engineering as thin films at the range of sizes (1–100 nm) or monolayer in the field of solar cells or catalysis. These thin films are inserted in different technological applications, including development of a new generation of environmental sensing systems, chemical and biological sensors, fiber-optic systems, and magneto-optic and optical device.

The sun sends an infinite light free from environmental pollution and noise is a renewable source of energy. The energy drawn from the sun can easily compensate for nonrenewable sources of energy such as fossil fuels and petroleum deposits on the earth. The solar cells have passed through a large number of improvement steps from one generation to another, because of their importance for the generation of alternative energy [36].

### **7.1 Solar cell**

X-rays described by [34]:

*XRD pattern of Al2O3 and TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposite.*

*Schematic diagram of the interaction of the X-ray with mater.*

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

**Figure 7.**

**Figure 8.**

**28**

*nλ* ¼ 2*d sinθ* (23)

where n is an integer, λ is the wavelength of the X-rays, d is the interplanar

X-Ray diffraction (XRD) can be considered as a good technique for analyzing the nanostructures, because the width and shape of reflections yield information about the substructure of the materials (sizes of microcrystallites, microdistortions of a lattice, dislocation structures, etc.). There are several approaches to analyze the X-ray diffraction line profiles, with the Scherrer, Williamson-Hall, and Warren-

spacing generating the diffraction, and θ is the diffraction angle.

Averbach methods being most widely applied [35].

Photovoltaic (PV) is related to the devices such as solar cell that directly converts sunlight into electricity. The solar cell is the elementary building block of the photovoltaic technology. Silicon is one of the most common semiconductor materials that is used to make solar cells. One of the most common properties of semiconductors that makes them most useful is that their conductivity may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. There are several types of solar cells, and they are either cut from a single crystal rod or from a block composed of many crystals and are correspondingly called monocrystalline or multicrystalline silicon solar cells and nanocrystal-based solar cells [37]. Most solar

cells are fundamentally large areas of p-n junctions. When light shines on them, they can generate current and voltage, the photons produce electron-hole (e–h) pairs, and the dipole electric field provides for a separation of these charges. The reason this can happen is because of the "built-in" electric field at the junction of the p-type and n-type material [36]. The junction between them creates a charge separation region with a strong dipole electric field.

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of photovoltaic cell are illustrated in **Figure 9**, which operates under normal conditions. The power curve is obtained when a solar cell produced power and then the current and voltage ð Þ *I* � *V* are the products. Most solar cells behave as a diode in the dark, admitting a much larger current under forward bias (V > 0) than under reverse bias (V < 0). For an ideal diode, the dark current density varies as:

$$J\_{dark} = J\_o \left( \mathbf{e}^{qV/K\_BT} - \mathbf{1} \right) \tag{26}$$

**7.2 Nanocoatings**

and consumes less energy.

**7.3 Sonocatalyst**

**31**

Coating is defined as a coherent layer formed from a single or multiple applications of coating materials to a substrate. According to the existing standard, coating material is a material in liquid, paste, or powder form that, when applied, forms a protective and decorative coating. Some nanomaterials are suitable for use in transparent coating systems. In addition, the transparency of these nanomaterials such as TiO2 nanoparticle in visible light makes it possible to create novel additives introducing new properties to otherwise nontransparent coatings. The choice of the manufacturing process depends on the specific application and the specific application requirements of the coating. The sol-gel process may offer several advantages to manufacturers: the manufacturing process is shorter, runs at lower temperatures,

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

The properties of Titanium dioxide (such as high photocatalytic efficiency, chemical stability, low toxicity, and low cost) made it most thoroughly used from other materials. Also, self-cleaning paints with other metal oxides like ZnO have been reported [40]. The self-cleaning researchers are mostly about air pollution and environmental contamination in buildings especially on indoor and outdoor building surfaces. The wide range of applications of self-cleaning was necessary to focus on various materials for different purposes [41]. Although the properties of surfaces of self-cleaning are complex, however, it is related to several of their surface characteristics. At the beginning, the surfaces are superhydrophilic and water droplets are spread across the surface making it easier to wash off solid material. Then any organic material coating on solid particles will react with these surfaces by

photocatalytic reactions to allow them to fall or wash off more readily. The surfaces of TiO2 have very high electroconductivity. A surface with high electroconductivity provides antistatic properties repelling charged particles and preventing their accumulation on the surface. In addition, the waterborne paint is prepared by the mill base for the pigment dispersion in water, auxiliary solvents, etc. Then the mill base

The chemical effects of ultrasound are not derived from a direct coupling of the acoustic field with chemical species on a molecular level. Instead, sonochemistry and sonoluminescence derive principally from acoustic cavitation [42]. In the past decade, the expansion of the sonoelectrochemistry has become increasingly important. The variety of induced effects on electrochemistry processes by ultrasound waves can be attributed to the generation, growth, and collapse of microbubbles in the electrolyte. There is a growing interest of the application of the sonoelectrochemistry in environmental remediation and in the preparation of nanopowders [43]. Ultrasounds have a wide range of uses in the development of applications of nanoparticle solutions for different chemical compounds. The effect of ultrasonic energy breaks the chemical bonds of compounds [44]. The ultrasonic catalytic degradation method has been widely used in wastewater treatment because of its many excellent properties; these are simple equipment, have high efficiency and stable operation, are safe, and cause no secondary pollution. Improvement of ultrasonic catalysis process is known as a sonocatalyst [45]. It has received great attention as a useful and promising method for mineralizing organic pollutants, for example, synthetic dyes in aqueous media. In this process, water molecules are used to produce hydroxyl radicals, which are very reactive and non-selective oxidants and are capable of decolorizing and mineralizing dyes to CO2 and H2O. The oxidation processes of a metal oxide semiconductor are advanced through ultrasonic treatment on surface [46]. The presence of semiconductor particles (i.e., TiO2,

is blended with the binder (polymer latex) and the paint is obtained [40].

where Jo is a constant. Thus, the net current flowing in a circuit powered by a solar cell is:

$$J(V) = J\_{\kappa} - J\_{dark} \tag{27}$$

$$J(V) = J\_{\mathfrak{sc}} - J\_o \left( \mathbf{e}^{qV/K\_B T} - \mathbf{1} \right) \tag{28}$$

where *Isc* is the current of short-circuited and *Voc* is the voltage of open circuit.

The maximum power is obtained when (V=Vm and I=Im) and the fill factor (FF) is defined by the ratio [38]:

$$FF = \frac{V\_m I\_m}{V\_{sc} I\_{sc}}\tag{29}$$

where Vm, Im is the maximum voltage and current, respectively.

Quantum efficiency (QE) is the ratio of the number of charge carriers collected by the solar cell to the number of photons of a given energy incident on the PV device [39]:

$$QE = \frac{P\_{out}}{P\_{in}} = \frac{P\_m}{P\_s} \tag{30}$$

Where is the maximum power and Pm = VmIm,Ps is incident light power.

**Figure 9.** *(I-V) Characteristics of a typical PV cell.*

### **7.2 Nanocoatings**

cells are fundamentally large areas of p-n junctions. When light shines on them, they can generate current and voltage, the photons produce electron-hole (e–h) pairs, and the dipole electric field provides for a separation of these charges. The reason this can happen is because of the "built-in" electric field at the junction of the p-type and n-type material [36]. The junction between them creates a charge

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of photovoltaic cell are illustrated in **Figure 9**, which operates under normal conditions. The power curve is obtained when a solar cell produced power and then the current and voltage ð Þ *I* � *V* are the products. Most solar cells behave as a diode in the dark, admitting a much larger current under forward bias (V > 0) than under reverse bias (V < 0). For an ideal

where Jo is a constant. Thus, the net current flowing in a circuit powered by a

where *Isc* is the current of short-circuited and *Voc* is the voltage of open circuit. The maximum power is obtained when (V=Vm and I=Im) and the fill factor (FF)

> *FF* <sup>¼</sup> *VmIm VscIsc*

Quantum efficiency (QE) is the ratio of the number of charge carriers collected by the solar cell to the number of photons of a given energy incident on the PV device [39]:

> <sup>¼</sup> *Pm Ps*

*qV=KBT* � <sup>1</sup> 

> *qV=KBT* � <sup>1</sup>

*J V*ð Þ¼ *Jsc* � *Jdark* (27)

(26)

(28)

(29)

(30)

*Jdark* ¼ *Jo e*

*J V*ð Þ¼ *Jsc* � *Jo e*

where Vm, Im is the maximum voltage and current, respectively.

*QE* <sup>¼</sup> *Pout Pin*

Where is the maximum power and Pm = VmIm,Ps is incident light power.

separation region with a strong dipole electric field.

diode, the dark current density varies as:

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

solar cell is:

**Figure 9.**

**30**

*(I-V) Characteristics of a typical PV cell.*

is defined by the ratio [38]:

Coating is defined as a coherent layer formed from a single or multiple applications of coating materials to a substrate. According to the existing standard, coating material is a material in liquid, paste, or powder form that, when applied, forms a protective and decorative coating. Some nanomaterials are suitable for use in transparent coating systems. In addition, the transparency of these nanomaterials such as TiO2 nanoparticle in visible light makes it possible to create novel additives introducing new properties to otherwise nontransparent coatings. The choice of the manufacturing process depends on the specific application and the specific application requirements of the coating. The sol-gel process may offer several advantages to manufacturers: the manufacturing process is shorter, runs at lower temperatures, and consumes less energy.

The properties of Titanium dioxide (such as high photocatalytic efficiency, chemical stability, low toxicity, and low cost) made it most thoroughly used from other materials. Also, self-cleaning paints with other metal oxides like ZnO have been reported [40]. The self-cleaning researchers are mostly about air pollution and environmental contamination in buildings especially on indoor and outdoor building surfaces. The wide range of applications of self-cleaning was necessary to focus on various materials for different purposes [41]. Although the properties of surfaces of self-cleaning are complex, however, it is related to several of their surface characteristics. At the beginning, the surfaces are superhydrophilic and water droplets are spread across the surface making it easier to wash off solid material. Then any organic material coating on solid particles will react with these surfaces by photocatalytic reactions to allow them to fall or wash off more readily. The surfaces of TiO2 have very high electroconductivity. A surface with high electroconductivity provides antistatic properties repelling charged particles and preventing their accumulation on the surface. In addition, the waterborne paint is prepared by the mill base for the pigment dispersion in water, auxiliary solvents, etc. Then the mill base is blended with the binder (polymer latex) and the paint is obtained [40].

### **7.3 Sonocatalyst**

The chemical effects of ultrasound are not derived from a direct coupling of the acoustic field with chemical species on a molecular level. Instead, sonochemistry and sonoluminescence derive principally from acoustic cavitation [42]. In the past decade, the expansion of the sonoelectrochemistry has become increasingly important. The variety of induced effects on electrochemistry processes by ultrasound waves can be attributed to the generation, growth, and collapse of microbubbles in the electrolyte. There is a growing interest of the application of the sonoelectrochemistry in environmental remediation and in the preparation of nanopowders [43]. Ultrasounds have a wide range of uses in the development of applications of nanoparticle solutions for different chemical compounds. The effect of ultrasonic energy breaks the chemical bonds of compounds [44]. The ultrasonic catalytic degradation method has been widely used in wastewater treatment because of its many excellent properties; these are simple equipment, have high efficiency and stable operation, are safe, and cause no secondary pollution. Improvement of ultrasonic catalysis process is known as a sonocatalyst [45]. It has received great attention as a useful and promising method for mineralizing organic pollutants, for example, synthetic dyes in aqueous media. In this process, water molecules are used to produce hydroxyl radicals, which are very reactive and non-selective oxidants and are capable of decolorizing and mineralizing dyes to CO2 and H2O. The oxidation processes of a metal oxide semiconductor are advanced through ultrasonic treatment on surface [46]. The presence of semiconductor particles (i.e., TiO2,

### **Figure 10.**

*The sonocatalysis effect on MB decolorization.*

ZnO) enhanced the process of breaking up the microbubbles created by the ultrasound irradiation into smaller bubbles, and these proses will be increasing the quantity of high of high temperatures and pressures, this leads to produce additionally amount of hydroxyl radicals which will attack the pollutant and resulting in degradation of the pollutant. Sonochemical decolorization of dyes under initial concentrations using ultrasonic processor represented by the effect of nanocomposite of Al2O3, TiO2, and TiO2/Al2O3 on the decolorization of methylene blue dye was clear as shown in **Figure 10**. The increase in the decolorization of dye in the presence of nanoparticles due to these nanoparticles act as catalysts that increase the number of nucleation of the cavity and improve the rate of dissociation of water into highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (OH). TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposites show highly removal of Methylene blue dye than other Sonocatalysts due to highly dissociation rates H2O molecules that yields more free radical generated, thereby increasing the rate of degradation of the organic compounds [16].

### **8. Conclusion**

Nanomaterials can be used in different applications such as in medicine, electronic device, sunscreens, military applications, photovoltaic cells, paints, catalysts, etc. Some of these do not have an effect on the environment, while others have an effect on it. In this chapter, the focus of our attention was on the applications that do not affect the environment and improve it, so the important property that surface to volume ratio of nanomaterials increases with decreases particle size. To do that, the processes of preparing nanoparticles are physical and chemical methods, and the sol-gel process is basic to prepare nanomaterials in chemical methods such as TiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2/α-Al2O3 because it can be used at low temperature and short time. These can be used in solar cells to produce clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes.

**Author details**

Physics Department, College of Science, Al-Muthanna University, Al-Muthanna,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: alisbasrah@yahoo.com

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

provided the original work is properly cited.

Ali Salman Ali

Iraq

**33**

*Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91438*

### **Author details**

ZnO) enhanced the process of breaking up the microbubbles created by the ultrasound irradiation into smaller bubbles, and these proses will be increasing the quantity of high of high temperatures and pressures, this leads to produce additionally amount of hydroxyl radicals which will attack the pollutant and resulting in degradation of the pollutant. Sonochemical decolorization of dyes under initial

nanocomposite of Al2O3, TiO2, and TiO2/Al2O3 on the decolorization of methylene blue dye was clear as shown in **Figure 10**. The increase in the decolorization of dye in the presence of nanoparticles due to these nanoparticles act as catalysts that increase the number of nucleation of the cavity and improve the rate of dissociation of water into highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (OH). TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposites show highly removal of Methylene blue dye than other Sonocatalysts due to highly dissociation rates H2O molecules that yields more free radical generated, thereby

Nanomaterials can be used in different applications such as in medicine, electronic device, sunscreens, military applications, photovoltaic cells, paints, catalysts, etc. Some of these do not have an effect on the environment, while others have an effect on it. In this chapter, the focus of our attention was on the applications that do not affect the environment and improve it, so the important property that surface to volume ratio of nanomaterials increases with decreases particle size. To do that, the processes of preparing nanoparticles are physical and chemical methods, and the sol-gel process is basic to prepare nanomaterials in chemical methods such as TiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2/α-Al2O3 because it can be used at low temperature and short time. These can be used in solar cells to produce clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes.

concentrations using ultrasonic processor represented by the effect of

increasing the rate of degradation of the organic compounds [16].

**8. Conclusion**

**32**

**Figure 10.**

*The sonocatalysis effect on MB decolorization.*

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

Ali Salman Ali Physics Department, College of Science, Al-Muthanna University, Al-Muthanna, Iraq

\*Address all correspondence to: alisbasrah@yahoo.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[4] Tala-Ighil R. Handbook of Nanoelectrochemistry. 2015. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-15207-3\_26-1

environmental application. Journal of Nanomaterials. 2016;**2015**:2. Article ID:

[5] Claire A, Grégory B, Garidel-Thoron CDE. Painting the future: AMIPAINT nanomaterials and the safer-by-design approach for new markets. SSRN Electronic Journal. 2017. DOI: 10.2139/

[6] Hitesh S. Material today. Science Direct. 2018;**5, 1**(2):6227-6233

Fundamental Nano-effects. Denmark: Inano, Aarhus University; 2010

[8] Wang ZL, editor. Characterization of Nanophase Materials. New York: Wiley-

[9] Roduner E. Size matters: Why nanomaterials are different. Chemical Society Reviews. 2006;**35**:583-592

[10] Arole VM, Munde SV. Fabrication of nanomaterials by top-down and bottom-up approaches: An overview. JAAST: Material Science. 2014;**1**(2):

[11] Guo Z, Tan L. Fundamentals and Applications of Nanomaterials. ARTECH HOUSE 685 Canton Street, Norwood, MA 02062 P.95; 2009

[7] Filipponi L, Sutherland D.

[22] Ederth J. Uppsala: Department of Materials Science, Uppsala University; 2003. ISSN 1104-232X, ISBN: 91-554- 5499-6

[23] Ali S. Ali, Kawakib J. Majeed. 1st Annual International Interdisciplinary Conference, AIIC 2013, 24–26 April, Azores, Portugal

[24] McLachlan DS, Sauti G, Corporation HP. The AC and DC conductivity of nanocomposites. Journal of Nanomaterials. 2007. p. 9. Article ID 30389

[25] Ali AS, Mohammed AJ. The optical properties of thin films of polymer PMMA/MR-Eosin prepared by casting methods. Journal of International Academic Research for Multidisciplinary. February 2017;**5**(1)

[26] Kulkarni A, Guney D, Vora A. Optical absorption in nano-structures: classical and quantum models. ISRN Nanomaterials. 2013. p. 7. Article ID: 504341

[27] Ghoranneviss M, Soni A, Talebitaher A, Aslan N. Nanomaterial synthesis, characterization, and application. Journal of Nanomaterials. 2015. p. 2. Article ID: 892542

[28] Heera P, Shanmugam S. Nanoparticle characterization and application: An overview. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2015;**4**(8):379-386

[29] Rice SB et al. Particle size distributions by transmission electron microscopy: An interlaboratory comparison case study. Metrologia. 2013;**50**(6):663-678

[30] Bonevich JE. Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory, National Cancer Institute- Frederick, MD 21702, (301), 846-6939; 2010

[31] Akbari B, PirhadiTavandashti M, Zandrahimi M. Particle size characterization of nanoparticles: A practical approach. Iranian Journal of Materials Science and Engineering. 2011;**8**(2)

[32] Joshi M, Bhattacharyya A, Wazed Ali S. Characterization techniques for nanotechnology applications in textiles. Indian Journal of Fibre and Textile Research. 2008;**33**:304-317

[33] Jores K et al. Investigation on the stricter of solid lipid nanopartuicles andoil-loaded solid nanoparticles by photon correlation spectroscopy, fieldflowfractionasition and transmission electron microscopy. Journal of Controlled Release. 2004;**17**:217-227

[34] Bunaciu AA, Udristioiu EG, Aboul-Enein HY. Critical reviews in analytical chemistry. 2015;**45**:289-299

[35] Dorofeev GA et al. Determination of nanoparticle sizes by the Xray diffraction method. Colloid Journal. 2012;**74**(6):678-688

[36] Sharma S, Jain KK, Sharma A. Solar cells: In research and applications: A review. Materials Sciences and Applications. 2015;**6**(12):1145-1155

[37] Piebalgs A, Potočnik J. Photovoltaic Solar Energy. Development and Current Research, European Communities; 2009. DOI: 10.2768/38305

[38] Yuan C. Development of nanoparticle sensitized solar cells. In: Doctoral Thesis in Theoretical Chemistry & Biology, School of Biotechnology. Stockholm, Sweden: Royal Institute of Technology; 2013

[39] Ananda W. International Symposium on Electrical and Computer Engineering Conference Paper. IEEE; 2017. DOI: 10.1109/QIR.2017.8168528

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

synthesis of nanoparticles [2].

Biological Synthesis of

*Omar Messaoudi and Mourad Bendahou*

the mechanisms involved in the formation of nanoparticles.

algae, to reduce the metal ions into metallic nanoparticles [5].

Development

Microorganisms: Current

Nanoparticles Using Endophytic

Nanotechnology is a new emerging interdisciplinary approach created by pairing

of engineering, chemical, and biological approaches. This technology produces nanoparticles using different methods of traditional physical and chemical processes; however, the outlook in this field of research is to use ecofriendly, nontoxic, and clean methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Biological entities, such as plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, yeast, and actinomycetes, are the best candidate to achieve this goal. Among the biological route, those involve endophtic microorganisms to reduce metallic ions into nanoparticles. This method is considered as an attractive option and can open a new horizon on the interface of biology and nanotechnology. The present chapter highlights the latest research about endophytic microorganisms and their application in the synthesis of nanoparticles, as well as

**Keywords:** endophyte microorganisms, green nanotechnology, nanoparticles

Nanotechnology is a new emerging interdisciplinary approach of created by pairing of biotechnology, and nanotechnology [1]. This new technology produced nanoparticles of various types (silver, copper, zinc, gold, etc.) at the nanoscale level (less than 100 nm). Three different methods can be employed for the synthesis of nanoparticles, including, chemical, physical and biological methods. These three methods follow either the bottom-up approach, or the top-down approach for the

The outlook in this field of research is to use ecofriendly, nontoxic and clean method for the synthesis of nanoparticles [3]. The chemical and physical methods are generally expensive and associated with destructive effects on the environment and human health [4]. In order to counter those limitations, one of the proposed solution is the application of a novel route for producing nanoparticles based on bottom-up method, called 'green synthesis', which is regarded as an important tool and gaining great attention in current research. This method is based on the utilization of natural resource, such as plants, fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, yeast and

[40] Bonnefond A, González E, et al. Stable photocatalytic paints prepared from hybrid core-shell fluorinated/ acrylic/TiO2 waterborne dispersions. Crystals. 2016;**6**:136. DOI: 10.3390/ cryst6100136

[41] Chermahini SH et al. New trends in self-cleaning materials for different purposes. International Journal of Advances in Civil Engineering. 2018;**1**(1)

[42] Kis-Csitári, Kónya Z, and Kiricsi I. Sonochemical synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles. Springer Science + Business Media B.V.; 2008. pp. 369-372

[43] Sáez V, Mason TJ. Sonoelectrochemical synthesis of nanoparticles. Molecules. 2009;**14**: 4284-4299. DOI: 10.3390/ molecules14104284

[44] Vasile-Sorin M, Aloman A. Obtaining silver nanoparticles by sonochemical methods. UPB Scientific Bulletin, Series B: Chemistry and Materials Science. 2010;**72**(2)

[45] Song S, Hao C, Zhang X, Zhang Q, Sun R. Sonocatalytic degradation of methyl orange in aqueous solution using Fe-doped TiO2 nanoparticles under mechanical agitation. Open Chemistry. 2018;**16**:1283-1296

[46] Khataeea A, Kayanc B, Gholamia P, Kalderisd D, Akay S. Sonocatalytic degradation of an anthraquinone dye using TiO2-biochar nanocomposite. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2017;**39**: 120-128

### **Chapter 3**

Engineering Conference Paper. IEEE; 2017. DOI: 10.1109/QIR.2017.8168528

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

[40] Bonnefond A, González E, et al. Stable photocatalytic paints prepared from hybrid core-shell fluorinated/ acrylic/TiO2 waterborne dispersions. Crystals. 2016;**6**:136. DOI: 10.3390/

[41] Chermahini SH et al. New trends in self-cleaning materials for different purposes. International Journal of Advances in Civil Engineering.

[42] Kis-Csitári, Kónya Z, and Kiricsi I. Sonochemical synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles. Springer Science + Business Media B.V.; 2008. pp. 369-372

cryst6100136

2018;**1**(1)

[43] Sáez V, Mason TJ.

2018;**16**:1283-1296

120-128

4284-4299. DOI: 10.3390/ molecules14104284

Sonoelectrochemical synthesis of nanoparticles. Molecules. 2009;**14**:

[44] Vasile-Sorin M, Aloman A. Obtaining silver nanoparticles by sonochemical methods. UPB Scientific Bulletin, Series B: Chemistry and Materials Science. 2010;**72**(2)

[45] Song S, Hao C, Zhang X, Zhang Q, Sun R. Sonocatalytic degradation of methyl orange in aqueous solution using Fe-doped TiO2 nanoparticles under mechanical agitation. Open Chemistry.

[46] Khataeea A, Kayanc B, Gholamia P, Kalderisd D, Akay S. Sonocatalytic degradation of an anthraquinone dye using TiO2-biochar nanocomposite. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2017;**39**:

## Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development

*Omar Messaoudi and Mourad Bendahou*

### **Abstract**

Nanotechnology is a new emerging interdisciplinary approach created by pairing of engineering, chemical, and biological approaches. This technology produces nanoparticles using different methods of traditional physical and chemical processes; however, the outlook in this field of research is to use ecofriendly, nontoxic, and clean methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Biological entities, such as plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, yeast, and actinomycetes, are the best candidate to achieve this goal. Among the biological route, those involve endophtic microorganisms to reduce metallic ions into nanoparticles. This method is considered as an attractive option and can open a new horizon on the interface of biology and nanotechnology. The present chapter highlights the latest research about endophytic microorganisms and their application in the synthesis of nanoparticles, as well as the mechanisms involved in the formation of nanoparticles.

**Keywords:** endophyte microorganisms, green nanotechnology, nanoparticles

### **1. Introduction**

Nanotechnology is a new emerging interdisciplinary approach of created by pairing of biotechnology, and nanotechnology [1]. This new technology produced nanoparticles of various types (silver, copper, zinc, gold, etc.) at the nanoscale level (less than 100 nm). Three different methods can be employed for the synthesis of nanoparticles, including, chemical, physical and biological methods. These three methods follow either the bottom-up approach, or the top-down approach for the synthesis of nanoparticles [2].

The outlook in this field of research is to use ecofriendly, nontoxic and clean method for the synthesis of nanoparticles [3]. The chemical and physical methods are generally expensive and associated with destructive effects on the environment and human health [4]. In order to counter those limitations, one of the proposed solution is the application of a novel route for producing nanoparticles based on bottom-up method, called 'green synthesis', which is regarded as an important tool and gaining great attention in current research. This method is based on the utilization of natural resource, such as plants, fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, yeast and algae, to reduce the metal ions into metallic nanoparticles [5].

The green synthesis of nanoparticles offers a set number of benefits compared with physical and chemical methods, since this method is cost-effectively, ecofriendly, uses less energy and can provide nanoparticles with better defined size and morphology, with a great compatibility for pharmaceuticals, medical, agronomical and environmental applications [6].

Microbial-mediated biosynthesis of nanomaterials is one of the promising biological-based nanomanufacturing process [7]. Microorganisms can produce nanoparticles by intracellular or extracellular synthesis, according to the location where nanoparticles are formed, through enzymes or biomolecules generated by the cell activities [8]. The use of microorganisms offers different advantages over the biosynthesis of nanoparticles by plants and algae, since microorganism can be easily scale-up, and they offert the possibility to changing culture condition to obtained nanoparticles with desired shape and sizes [9].

One approach that shows immense potential is based on the biosynthesis of nanoparticles using endophytic microorganisms, which is considered as a new potential source, under explored [10]. In this chapter, we present, the latest research about nanoparticles from endophytic microorganisms.

### **2. Endophytic microorganism: bacteria and fungi**

"Endophytes" is a Greek word that mean "within plant", this term is used for microorganisms (bacteria or fungi) that dwell within plant tissues, without causing any disease, infection, or damage to the plant tissues [11]. Every plant host, intercellularly and/or extracellularly, in various spaces of plant parts including roots, leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds, one to more endophytes microorganisms [12]. To date, endophytes microorganism has been found in all plant species that exist on the earth (nearly 390,000 plants) [13]. Mutualist is the most common relationship between plants and endophytes, however, in some cases and under some conditions, the endophytes can behave as opportunistic pathogens [14].

To have a stable symbiotic relationship, the plant host provides to endophytes the necessary organic nutrient, generated through photosynthesis, for growth and multiplication [14]. On the other side the endophytes offer different beneficial effects to the host plant, this including: (i) nutrient assimilation: by synthesis of iron (Fe)-sequestering siderophores, fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, solubilization of minerals such as phosphorus [15]. (ii) Stimulation of plant growth: by secretion of plant growth regulators (PGRs), such as auxin, cytokinin, ethylene and gibberellin [16]. (iii) Protection of host plants from attack of pathogens microorganisms and insects: through secretion of various bioactive secondary metabolites as well as lytic enzymes [17].

The endophytes microorganisms can be acquired directly from the environment (horizontal transmission), or are vertically transmitted from generation to generation via seed [18]. The majority of endophytes are acquired via the first mechanism of transmission, this was confirmed through the study of the diversity of microorganisms in seeds and seedlings, raised under sterile conditions, which are typically lower than the diversity of microorganisms in plants grown in soil [19].

Endophytes are studied under two categories, bacterial endophytes and fungal endophytes [20]. The structure of the microorganism communities resides inside the plants, depends on several factors, including, the nature of soil and the plant host species [21]. To study the composition in microorganisms of endophytes, the culture-dependent methods do not allow a complete overview of the endophytic population, because the uncultured microorganisms cannot be recovered and

**39**

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development*

identified using this method. However, the use of molecular approaches, including high throughput techniques of next generation sequencing (NGS), confers a rapid analysis of the composition and diversity of plant microbial endophytes communities [22]. According to the study of Hardoim et al., 2014 [14], which analyze the sequences of 16 s DNAr assigned to endophytic bacteria strains, including cultured and uncultured bacteria, he found that, 96% of analyzed sequences belong to four different cultured phyla, which is reported to be dominant in the plant environment, including: 54% *Proteobacteria, 20% Actinobacteria, 16% Firmicutes,* and 6% *Bacteroidetes*. However, 19 phyla belong to the non cultured bacteria. Furthermore, 50% of the analyzed sequences, which are the predominant endophytes strains, belong to the genera, *Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Pantoea,* 

*Stenotrophomonas, Acinetobacter,* and *Serratia*, all these genera are member within the class of *Gammaproteobacteria (Proteobacteria phylum).* Other genera are also well represented whithin endophytic bacteria population, this including *Streptomyces, Microbacterium, Mycobacterium, Arthrobacter*, as well as *Bacillus,* 

*Talaromyces, Aspergillus, Psathyrella, Trichoderma, Alternaria, Thielavia,* 

*Acremonium, Fusarium, Talaromyces, Coniolariella, Paecilomyces, Simplicillium, and Monocillium.* Among the obtained strains, only two isolates were recovered from the plant's leaves (*Thielavia microspore* and *Aspergillus* sp.), while the remaining isolates

Nanotechnology is a rapidly growing field of science, and can be defined as the manipulation of materials at the nanometer scale or one billionth of a meter. It's become an integral part of the biotechnology and regarded as one of the key

at least, these materials, called nanoparticles, can be produced using different metals, such as: gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper oxide (CuO), zinc oxide (ZnO), iron (Fe2O3), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), nickel oxide (NiO), magnesium oxide

The synthesis of nanoparticles is based on two approaches: (1) top-down approach and (2) bottom-up approach (**Figure 1**) [28]. The first approach (top-down approach) is destructive method, based on the decomposition of larger molecule into smaller units, these unit are then converted into appropriate nanoparticles. Several physical methods are applied in this case: mechanical milling, chemical etching, sputtering, laser ablation electro-explosion [29]. The second approach (bottom-up approach), is employed in reverse to the first approach, in fact, in this case, nanoparticles are formed when atoms are self assemble together [30]. The synthesis of nanoparticles using this approach, can be carried

(MgO), selenium (Se) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) [27].

Nanotechnology produces materials which have one dimension less than 100 nm

Endophytic fungi are ubiquitous in plants and are mainly members of *Ascomycota* or their mitosporic fungi, as well as some taxa of *Basidiomycota, Zygomycota,* and *Mucoromycota* [23]. Li et al. [24], examined endophytic fungi associated with the stem and root of 10 halophytic species colonizing the Gurbantonggut desert, they obtained 36 endophytic fungal taxa, dominated by *Alternaria eichhorniae, Monosporascus ibericus,* and *Pezizomycotina* sp. 1. However, a total of 56 endophytic fungi was isolated from leave and root segments of *Salvia abrotanoides* at the three sites by Teimoori-Boghsani et al. [25]. The isolated strains belong to 16 different fungal genera, this including: *Penicillium, Paraphoma, Phaeoacremonium,* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

*Paenibacillus, and Staphylococcus*.

were obtained from root samples.

**3. The green nanotechnology**

technologies [26].

### *Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

identified using this method. However, the use of molecular approaches, including high throughput techniques of next generation sequencing (NGS), confers a rapid analysis of the composition and diversity of plant microbial endophytes communities [22]. According to the study of Hardoim et al., 2014 [14], which analyze the sequences of 16 s DNAr assigned to endophytic bacteria strains, including cultured and uncultured bacteria, he found that, 96% of analyzed sequences belong to four different cultured phyla, which is reported to be dominant in the plant environment, including: 54% *Proteobacteria, 20% Actinobacteria, 16% Firmicutes,* and 6% *Bacteroidetes*. However, 19 phyla belong to the non cultured bacteria. Furthermore, 50% of the analyzed sequences, which are the predominant endophytes strains, belong to the genera, *Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Stenotrophomonas, Acinetobacter,* and *Serratia*, all these genera are member within the class of *Gammaproteobacteria (Proteobacteria phylum).* Other genera are also well represented whithin endophytic bacteria population, this including *Streptomyces, Microbacterium, Mycobacterium, Arthrobacter*, as well as *Bacillus, Paenibacillus, and Staphylococcus*.

Endophytic fungi are ubiquitous in plants and are mainly members of *Ascomycota* or their mitosporic fungi, as well as some taxa of *Basidiomycota, Zygomycota,* and *Mucoromycota* [23]. Li et al. [24], examined endophytic fungi associated with the stem and root of 10 halophytic species colonizing the Gurbantonggut desert, they obtained 36 endophytic fungal taxa, dominated by *Alternaria eichhorniae, Monosporascus ibericus,* and *Pezizomycotina* sp. 1. However, a total of 56 endophytic fungi was isolated from leave and root segments of *Salvia abrotanoides* at the three sites by Teimoori-Boghsani et al. [25]. The isolated strains belong to 16 different fungal genera, this including: *Penicillium, Paraphoma, Phaeoacremonium, Talaromyces, Aspergillus, Psathyrella, Trichoderma, Alternaria, Thielavia, Acremonium, Fusarium, Talaromyces, Coniolariella, Paecilomyces, Simplicillium, and Monocillium.* Among the obtained strains, only two isolates were recovered from the plant's leaves (*Thielavia microspore* and *Aspergillus* sp.), while the remaining isolates were obtained from root samples.

### **3. The green nanotechnology**

Nanotechnology is a rapidly growing field of science, and can be defined as the manipulation of materials at the nanometer scale or one billionth of a meter. It's become an integral part of the biotechnology and regarded as one of the key technologies [26].

Nanotechnology produces materials which have one dimension less than 100 nm at least, these materials, called nanoparticles, can be produced using different metals, such as: gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper oxide (CuO), zinc oxide (ZnO), iron (Fe2O3), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), nickel oxide (NiO), magnesium oxide (MgO), selenium (Se) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) [27].

The synthesis of nanoparticles is based on two approaches: (1) top-down approach and (2) bottom-up approach (**Figure 1**) [28]. The first approach (top-down approach) is destructive method, based on the decomposition of larger molecule into smaller units, these unit are then converted into appropriate nanoparticles. Several physical methods are applied in this case: mechanical milling, chemical etching, sputtering, laser ablation electro-explosion [29]. The second approach (bottom-up approach), is employed in reverse to the first approach, in fact, in this case, nanoparticles are formed when atoms are self assemble together [30]. The synthesis of nanoparticles using this approach, can be carried

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

and environmental applications [6].

nanoparticles with desired shape and sizes [9].

about nanoparticles from endophytic microorganisms.

**2. Endophytic microorganism: bacteria and fungi**

tions, the endophytes can behave as opportunistic pathogens [14].

The green synthesis of nanoparticles offers a set number of benefits compared with physical and chemical methods, since this method is cost-effectively, ecofriendly, uses less energy and can provide nanoparticles with better defined size and morphology, with a great compatibility for pharmaceuticals, medical, agronomical

Microbial-mediated biosynthesis of nanomaterials is one of the promising biological-based nanomanufacturing process [7]. Microorganisms can produce nanoparticles by intracellular or extracellular synthesis, according to the location where nanoparticles are formed, through enzymes or biomolecules generated by the cell activities [8]. The use of microorganisms offers different advantages over the biosynthesis of nanoparticles by plants and algae, since microorganism can be easily scale-up, and they offert the possibility to changing culture condition to obtained

One approach that shows immense potential is based on the biosynthesis of nanoparticles using endophytic microorganisms, which is considered as a new potential source, under explored [10]. In this chapter, we present, the latest research

"Endophytes" is a Greek word that mean "within plant", this term is used for microorganisms (bacteria or fungi) that dwell within plant tissues, without causing any disease, infection, or damage to the plant tissues [11]. Every plant host, intercellularly and/or extracellularly, in various spaces of plant parts including roots, leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds, one to more endophytes microorganisms [12]. To date, endophytes microorganism has been found in all plant species that exist on the earth (nearly 390,000 plants) [13]. Mutualist is the most common relationship between plants and endophytes, however, in some cases and under some condi-

To have a stable symbiotic relationship, the plant host provides to endophytes the necessary organic nutrient, generated through photosynthesis, for growth and multiplication [14]. On the other side the endophytes offer different beneficial effects to the host plant, this including: (i) nutrient assimilation: by synthesis of iron (Fe)-sequestering siderophores, fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, solubilization of minerals such as phosphorus [15]. (ii) Stimulation of plant growth: by secretion of plant growth regulators (PGRs), such as auxin, cytokinin, ethylene and gibberellin [16]. (iii) Protection of host plants from attack of pathogens microorganisms and insects: through secretion of various bioactive secondary metabolites

The endophytes microorganisms can be acquired directly from the environment (horizontal transmission), or are vertically transmitted from generation to generation via seed [18]. The majority of endophytes are acquired via the first mechanism of transmission, this was confirmed through the study of the diversity of microorganisms in seeds and seedlings, raised under sterile conditions, which are typically

Endophytes are studied under two categories, bacterial endophytes and fungal endophytes [20]. The structure of the microorganism communities resides inside the plants, depends on several factors, including, the nature of soil and the plant host species [21]. To study the composition in microorganisms of endophytes, the culture-dependent methods do not allow a complete overview of the endophytic population, because the uncultured microorganisms cannot be recovered and

lower than the diversity of microorganisms in plants grown in soil [19].

**38**

as well as lytic enzymes [17].

**Figure 1.**

*Top-down and bottom-up approach.*

out by several physical and chemical methods including: spinning, template support synthesis, plasma or flame spraying synthesis, laser pyrolysis, CVD, atomic or molecular condensation [31]. Biological routes can also be applied to reduce metallic ions into neutral atoms (zero valent atoms) for synthesis of nanoparticles with bottom-up approach, this method is so called green nanotechnology, in this case several biological sources, available in nature, are involved, such as: (i) utilization of microorganism (bacteria, fungi); (ii) utilization of plant extracts; (iii) utilization of microseaweeds; (iv) using enzymes and biomolecules [32, 33].

Biological agents involved in green nanotechnology offer many benefits as compared with physical and chemical syntheses, in fact, these techniques are costly, requires higher utilization of energy, and utilize toxic chemicals that may have a disastrous effect on the environment [34]. In contrast, biological approach has several edges over chemical and physical methods for synthesis of nanoparticles, as it is low cost, eco-friendly, non-toxic, clean and can be scaled up to larger-scale synthesis with ease [35].

Biological nanoparticles, synthesized using different metal, have been applied in many fields, in fact, the silver nanoparticles are widely used in medical fields, for example Al-Sheddi et al. [36], show the potential of silver nanoparticles synthesized using an extract of *Nepeta deflersiana* against Human Cervical Cancer Cells (HeLA). However, Soliman et al. [37] indicate that the silver nanoparticles synthesized by the pink yeast, *Rhodotorula* sp. ATL72, isolated from salt marches near mediterranean sea, Egypt, exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against a wide range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria as well as fungi with low MIC value. Moreover, zinc and titanium nanoparticles are generally used in cosmetics fields [38]. Biological nanoparticles can also apply as sensors for various biomolecules related to environmental factors and agriculture, as well as they can also use for gene delivery and cell labeling in plants and in medicine [39].

### **4. Mechanisms of nanoparticle biosynthesis by microorganisms**

Although, the number of studies which elucidate the green synthesis of nanoparticles using microorganisms, there is a little work about the mechanism and the biochemical pathway involved behind the synthesis of metal nanoparticles.

Intra and extra cellulary microbial enzymes and secondary metabolites secreted by microorganisms, play a key role in the reduction of metal ions into their respective nanoparticles. In fact, It has been found that the microorganisms when are exposed to metal ion solution, they are responding to this environmental stress by the secretion of enzymes and biomolecules that possess a reducing potential of metal salts, consequently the metal ions are detoxified to less toxic metal nanoparticles [5].

**41**

(**Figure 2**):

*Mechanisms of nanoparticle synthesis.*

**Figure 2.**

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development*

Three steps are involved in the biosynthesis of nanoparticles by microorganisms

• In the second step, metallic ions (M+) are bioreduced into zero-valent metals (M°). This reaction can be catalyzed by: (i) the active groups, such as the hydroxyl group (C-OH) or the ionized carboxyl (COO-) group, of biomolecules biosynthetized by the microorganisms having reduction capabilities., or (ii) or by microbial enzymes, such as, NADH-dependent nitrate reductase, which catalyze the reduction of silver ions to silver nanoparticles at pH 7.2, using NADH as electron source and 8-hydroxyquinoline as electron shuttle [41, 42]. As results of this reduction, the metal ions are changed from their mono- or divalent oxidation states to reduced metal ions (zero-valent states). Afterward, the nanoparticles joint to form different morphology shapes such as, spheres, hexagons, triangles, cubes, ovale, etc. [43].

• The third step corresponding to the stabilization of nanoparticles with capping agents, to prevent further growth and agglomeration and controlling the shape

The size of nanoparticles biosynthesize by endophytic microorganisms affect the activity, it has been proved that nanoparticles with small size provide great surface/volume ration and guarantee a good activity [44]. Different physicochemical parameters should be controlled and optimized, such as, temperature, pH, metal salt concentration, incubation period, agitation, nature and concentration of carbon and nitrogen source in culture media, to producing homogeneous

Biological methods are being a popular trend in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles. Among them, those involving saprophytic microorganisms (bacteria and

and size of the biosynthesized nanoparticles [5].

nanoparticles in size and shape, with satisfied activity [38].

**5. Nanoparticles synthetized by endophytic microorganisms**

• In the first step, metallic ions are captured on the surface of microbial cells via electrostatic interaction with the negatively charged cell wall, or they are absorbed inside the microbial cells, through cationic membrane transport systems that normally transport metabolically important cations [5, 40].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

### **Figure 2.** *Mechanisms of nanoparticle synthesis.*

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

*Top-down and bottom-up approach.*

synthesis with ease [35].

**Figure 1.**

in medicine [39].

metal nanoparticles [5].

out by several physical and chemical methods including: spinning, template support synthesis, plasma or flame spraying synthesis, laser pyrolysis, CVD, atomic or molecular condensation [31]. Biological routes can also be applied to reduce metallic ions into neutral atoms (zero valent atoms) for synthesis of nanoparticles with bottom-up approach, this method is so called green nanotechnology, in this case several biological sources, available in nature, are involved, such as: (i) utilization of microorganism (bacteria, fungi); (ii) utilization of plant extracts; (iii) utilization

Biological agents involved in green nanotechnology offer many benefits as compared with physical and chemical syntheses, in fact, these techniques are costly, requires higher utilization of energy, and utilize toxic chemicals that may have a disastrous effect on the environment [34]. In contrast, biological approach has several edges over chemical and physical methods for synthesis of nanoparticles, as it is low cost, eco-friendly, non-toxic, clean and can be scaled up to larger-scale

Biological nanoparticles, synthesized using different metal, have been applied in many fields, in fact, the silver nanoparticles are widely used in medical fields, for example Al-Sheddi et al. [36], show the potential of silver nanoparticles synthesized using an extract of *Nepeta deflersiana* against Human Cervical Cancer Cells (HeLA). However, Soliman et al. [37] indicate that the silver nanoparticles synthesized by the pink yeast, *Rhodotorula* sp. ATL72, isolated from salt marches near mediterranean sea, Egypt, exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against a wide range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria as well as fungi with low MIC value. Moreover, zinc and titanium nanoparticles are generally used in cosmetics fields [38]. Biological nanoparticles can also apply as sensors for various biomolecules related to environmental factors and agriculture, as well as they can also use for gene delivery and cell labeling in plants and

**4. Mechanisms of nanoparticle biosynthesis by microorganisms**

Although, the number of studies which elucidate the green synthesis of nanoparticles using microorganisms, there is a little work about the mechanism and the biochemical pathway involved behind the synthesis of metal nanoparticles. Intra and extra cellulary microbial enzymes and secondary metabolites secreted by microorganisms, play a key role in the reduction of metal ions into their respective nanoparticles. In fact, It has been found that the microorganisms when are exposed to metal ion solution, they are responding to this environmental stress by the secretion of enzymes and biomolecules that possess a reducing potential of metal salts, consequently the metal ions are detoxified to less toxic

of microseaweeds; (iv) using enzymes and biomolecules [32, 33].

**40**

Three steps are involved in the biosynthesis of nanoparticles by microorganisms (**Figure 2**):


The size of nanoparticles biosynthesize by endophytic microorganisms affect the activity, it has been proved that nanoparticles with small size provide great surface/volume ration and guarantee a good activity [44]. Different physicochemical parameters should be controlled and optimized, such as, temperature, pH, metal salt concentration, incubation period, agitation, nature and concentration of carbon and nitrogen source in culture media, to producing homogeneous nanoparticles in size and shape, with satisfied activity [38].

### **5. Nanoparticles synthetized by endophytic microorganisms**

Biological methods are being a popular trend in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles. Among them, those involving saprophytic microorganisms (bacteria and

fungi), which are able to turn the metal ions, from their environment, into metallic nanoparticles through enzymes and secondary metabolites generated by the cell activities. This process provides greater stability and appropriate dimensions of synthesized nonoparticules [37].

Compared with saprophytic microorganisms, the application of endophytic microorganisms has emerged as a novel research area for the green synthesis of nanoparticles. This field of research can open a new horizon, on the interface of biology and nanotechnology, for novel nanomaterials with diverse applications [45].

Different endophytic microorganisms, including fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes, can be used for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles from different metal, such as silver, gold, zinc, copper, etc. **Table 1** summarizes the recent researches in this field.

### **5.1 Nanoparticles synthesized by endophytic bacteria**

Some endophytic bacteria, have developed a specific defense mechanism to overcome toxicity of metal ions, this mechanism is based on the precipitation of ions metals at the nanometer scale to produce nanoparticles [63]. It was observed that some of endophytic bacteria could survive and grow even at high metal ion concentrations. Bacteria possess such remarkable ability to reduce metal ions into nanoparticles, can be a good candidate for nanoparticles synthesis [64].

Ibrahim et al. [46, 47] reported the isolation of *Bacillus siamensis* C1 from *Coriandrum sativum* and *Pseudomonas poae* CO from *Allium sativum*, both strains produce silver nanoparticles with spherical shape and exhibited potential antibacterial, antibiofilm and antifungal activity.

Gold nanoparticles with spherical form and size range from 5 to 50 nm, has been successfully synthesized by the endophytic bacteria, *Pseudomonas fluorescens* 417, isolated from the plant, *Coffea arabica*. The synthesized gold nanoparticles show bactericidal activity against a panel of clinically significant pathogens [49]. The same author, Syed et al. [48], use the strain *Aneurinibacillus migulanus,* isolated from surface sterilized inner leaf segment of *Mimosa pudica,* for the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles with different shapes, including, spherical, oval, cubic and triangular shapes. The particle size has been determined by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) method, and revealed average size of 24.27 nm. The bactericidal activity of the biosynthesis silver nanoparticles indicates interesting activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. The highest activity was observed against *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, which is considered as clinically important bacteria.

### **5.2 Nanoparticles synthesized by endophytic fungi**

In recent years, the utilization of endophytic fungi for the production of metallic nanoparticles has attracted more attention, due to their metal toleration, metal uptake and accumulation capability [65]. Compared with the other microorganisms, fungi are good machines for the synthesis of any type of metallic nanoparticles, and can provide a several advantages, such as: (i) Easy for isolation from soil or plants, compared with rare bacteria and actinomycetes, which required specific enrichment methods for isolation [56]. (ii) Secrete large amounts of metabolites and extracellular enzymes, which facilitate the reduction of metal ions into nanoparticles. (iii) Easy to scale-up, since they have a rapid growth [66] (iv). Most of the fungi have a large range of growth for pH, temperature and Nacl, which facilitate the change of culture conditions in order to produce homogeneous nanoparticles [67].

**43**

**Plants** *Coriandrum sativum*

*Allium sativum* *Mimosa pudica*

*Coffea arabica* *Raphanus sativus*

*Taxus baccata* *Erythrophleum fordii*

*Chonemorpha fragrans.*

*Cinnamomum* 

*zeylanicum*

*Chiliadenus montanus*

*Madhuca longifolia*

*Pinus densiflora*

*Ocimum tenuiflorum*

*Borszczowia* 

*Isoptericola* SYSU 333150

Spherical

11–40 nm

Silver

*aralocaspica*

*Oxalis corniculata*

*Mentha longifolia*

*Streptomyces zaomyceticus* 

Spherical

~78 nm

Copper

Antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer

[59]

*Oc-5*

*Streptomyces sp.*

Spherical

2.3–85 nm

Silver

Antimicrobial

[60]

*Trichoderma atroviride*

*Pestalotia sp.* *Talaromyces purpureogenus*

*Exserohilum rostrata,*

Spherical

Angular Round to triangle

Spherical

~ 25 nm 10–15 nm

Silver

Silver

10 to 15 nm.

< 40 nm

Silver

Silver

Antibacterial Antibacterial Antimicrobial and anticancer

Antibacterial, antiinflammatory, and

antioxidant

Antibacterial

[58]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

*Pseudomonas fluorescens 417*

*Alternaria* sp.

*Nemania* sp. *Alternaria tenuissima*

*Fusarium solani*

*Lasiodiplodia theobromae*

Spherical Spherical Spherical or ellipsoidal

Spherical

Spindle Spherical to oval

5–70 nm 15–45 nm. 40–45 nm

~ 76 nm

Silver

Gold

Zinc oxide

Silver

5–50 nm 4–30 nm.

Silver

Gold

Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antimicrobial, anticancer and antioxidant

Anticancer Antibacterial

[51] [52]

*Aneurinibacillus migulanus*

Spherical, oval, cubic, triangular

~ 24.27 nm

Silver

Antibacterial

[48]

*Bacillus siamensis* C1

*Pseudomonas poae* CO

Spherical Spherical

25–50 nm

19.8– 44.9 nm

Silver

Silver

Antibacterial

Antifungal

[46] [47]

**Endophytes**

**Shapes**

**Size**

**Types of NPs**

**Activity**

**References**

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development*

[53]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

[49] [35] [50]


### *Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

synthesized nonoparticules [37].

**5.1 Nanoparticles synthesized by endophytic bacteria**

terial, antibiofilm and antifungal activity.

**5.2 Nanoparticles synthesized by endophytic fungi**

this field.

fungi), which are able to turn the metal ions, from their environment, into metallic nanoparticles through enzymes and secondary metabolites generated by the cell activities. This process provides greater stability and appropriate dimensions of

Compared with saprophytic microorganisms, the application of endophytic microorganisms has emerged as a novel research area for the green synthesis of nanoparticles. This field of research can open a new horizon, on the interface of biology and nanotechnology, for novel nanomaterials with diverse applications [45]. Different endophytic microorganisms, including fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes, can be used for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles from different metal, such as silver, gold, zinc, copper, etc. **Table 1** summarizes the recent researches in

Some endophytic bacteria, have developed a specific defense mechanism to overcome toxicity of metal ions, this mechanism is based on the precipitation of ions metals at the nanometer scale to produce nanoparticles [63]. It was observed that some of endophytic bacteria could survive and grow even at high metal ion concentrations. Bacteria possess such remarkable ability to reduce metal ions into

Ibrahim et al. [46, 47] reported the isolation of *Bacillus siamensis* C1 from *Coriandrum sativum* and *Pseudomonas poae* CO from *Allium sativum*, both strains produce silver nanoparticles with spherical shape and exhibited potential antibac-

In recent years, the utilization of endophytic fungi for the production of metallic nanoparticles has attracted more attention, due to their metal toleration, metal uptake and accumulation capability [65]. Compared with the other microorganisms, fungi are good machines for the synthesis of any type of metallic nanoparticles, and can provide a several advantages, such as: (i) Easy for isolation from soil or plants, compared with rare bacteria and actinomycetes, which required specific enrichment methods for isolation [56]. (ii) Secrete large amounts of metabolites and extracellular enzymes, which facilitate the reduction of metal ions into nanoparticles. (iii) Easy to scale-up, since they have a rapid growth [66] (iv). Most of the fungi have a large range of growth for pH, temperature and Nacl, which facilitate the change of culture conditions in order to produce homogeneous

Gold nanoparticles with spherical form and size range from 5 to 50 nm, has been successfully synthesized by the endophytic bacteria, *Pseudomonas fluorescens* 417, isolated from the plant, *Coffea arabica*. The synthesized gold nanoparticles show bactericidal activity against a panel of clinically significant pathogens [49]. The same author, Syed et al. [48], use the strain *Aneurinibacillus migulanus,* isolated from surface sterilized inner leaf segment of *Mimosa pudica,* for the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles with different shapes, including, spherical, oval, cubic and triangular shapes. The particle size has been determined by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) method, and revealed average size of 24.27 nm. The bactericidal activity of the biosynthesis silver nanoparticles indicates interesting activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. The highest activity was observed against *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, which is considered as clinically

nanoparticles, can be a good candidate for nanoparticles synthesis [64].

**42**

important bacteria.

nanoparticles [67].


**45**

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development*

Clarance et al. [52], reported the isolation of the endophytic fungi, *Fusarium solani*, from the plant *Chonemorpha fragrans*, which is used for the biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles. The morphology of synthesized nanomaterials was found to have needled and flower like structures with spindle shape, and showed pinkruby red colors and high peak plasmon band between 510 and 560 nm. The gold synthesized nanoparticles showed cytotoxic activity against cervical cancer cells (HeLa) (IC50: 0.8 ± 0.5 μg/mL) and human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) (IC50:

Abdelhakim et al. [51], use the culture filtrate of the endophytic fungi *Alternaria tenuissima,* isolated from *Erythrophleum fordii,* to produce zinc oxide nanoparticles. The shape of the biosynthesized nanoparticles was spherical and having size diameter ranges between 15 and 45 nm along with significant antimicrobial, anticancer

The endophyte *Exserohilum rostrata* has been isolated from the plant *Ocimum tenuiflorum* by Bagur et al. [57], this strain was used for the biosynthesis of spherical silver nanoparticles with a size, range between 10 and 15 nm, and showed significant antimicrobial activity and other biological properties such as, anti-inflammatory,

Actinomycetes are Gram positive bacteria with high G + C, belong to the phylum of *Actinobacteria*, which is one of the largest taxonomic rank within the domain of *Bacteria* [68, 69]. This group of microorganisms is known by the production of a wide range of bioactive secondary metabolites. In fact, 70–80% of secondary metabolites in current clinical use, including, antibiotics, antifungals, immunosuppressives, anticancer, insecticides and antivirals, have been isolated and characterized from several species of actinomycetes, particularly from the

Nanoparticles from endophytic actinobacteria is an emerging field yet to be established, in fact, when compared with fungi and the other bacteria, only few publications have been reported. Most of the articles about nanoparticles from endophytic actinomycetes, reporting the synthesis of nanoparticles using endophytes belong to the genus of *Streptomyces*, however, nanoparticles synthesized by

The author, Hassan et al. [59, 61], publishes two papers about the utilization of endophytic *Streptomyces* for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles. In fact, they report the isolation of *Streptomyces zaomyceticus* Oc-5 and *Streptomyces capillispiralis* Ca-1, from the plants *Oxalis corniculata* and *Convolvulus arvensis* respectively. Both strains were used for the synthesis of copper naoparticles, which exhibited different biological activity, including, antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer,

In another study, Dong et al. [58], use a rare actinobacteria, in order to control the disease caused by *Staphylococcus warneri* which have a significant impact on human health. The researchers use the strain, *Isoptericola SYSU 333150*, isolated from the plant *Borszczowia aralocaspica*, for the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle using photo-irradiation with sunlight exposition for different periods, they obtained spherical nanoparticles with a size range between, 11–40 nm, which exhibit antimi-

Several others studies confirm that nanoparticles from different metallic natures, sizes and shapes, synthesized by endophytic microorganisms, are attractive options, since they exhibited various pool of biological activities, including, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antiinflamatory, antioxidant [35, 50, 53–56, 60, 62].

**5.3 Nanoparticles synthesized by endophytic actinomycetes**

rare actinobacteria have been reported in a few papers [60, 62].

crobial activity against the pathogen *S. warneri.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

1.3 ± 0.5 μg/mL).

and antioxidant activity.

and antioxidant activities.

genus *Streptomyces* [70].

and insecticides.

*Biosynthesis of nanoparticles from endophytic microorganisms with their respective size and biological activity.*

### *Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

Clarance et al. [52], reported the isolation of the endophytic fungi, *Fusarium solani*, from the plant *Chonemorpha fragrans*, which is used for the biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles. The morphology of synthesized nanomaterials was found to have needled and flower like structures with spindle shape, and showed pinkruby red colors and high peak plasmon band between 510 and 560 nm. The gold synthesized nanoparticles showed cytotoxic activity against cervical cancer cells (HeLa) (IC50: 0.8 ± 0.5 μg/mL) and human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) (IC50: 1.3 ± 0.5 μg/mL).

Abdelhakim et al. [51], use the culture filtrate of the endophytic fungi *Alternaria tenuissima,* isolated from *Erythrophleum fordii,* to produce zinc oxide nanoparticles. The shape of the biosynthesized nanoparticles was spherical and having size diameter ranges between 15 and 45 nm along with significant antimicrobial, anticancer and antioxidant activity.

The endophyte *Exserohilum rostrata* has been isolated from the plant *Ocimum tenuiflorum* by Bagur et al. [57], this strain was used for the biosynthesis of spherical silver nanoparticles with a size, range between 10 and 15 nm, and showed significant antimicrobial activity and other biological properties such as, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities.

### **5.3 Nanoparticles synthesized by endophytic actinomycetes**

Actinomycetes are Gram positive bacteria with high G + C, belong to the phylum of *Actinobacteria*, which is one of the largest taxonomic rank within the domain of *Bacteria* [68, 69]. This group of microorganisms is known by the production of a wide range of bioactive secondary metabolites. In fact, 70–80% of secondary metabolites in current clinical use, including, antibiotics, antifungals, immunosuppressives, anticancer, insecticides and antivirals, have been isolated and characterized from several species of actinomycetes, particularly from the genus *Streptomyces* [70].

Nanoparticles from endophytic actinobacteria is an emerging field yet to be established, in fact, when compared with fungi and the other bacteria, only few publications have been reported. Most of the articles about nanoparticles from endophytic actinomycetes, reporting the synthesis of nanoparticles using endophytes belong to the genus of *Streptomyces*, however, nanoparticles synthesized by rare actinobacteria have been reported in a few papers [60, 62].

The author, Hassan et al. [59, 61], publishes two papers about the utilization of endophytic *Streptomyces* for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles. In fact, they report the isolation of *Streptomyces zaomyceticus* Oc-5 and *Streptomyces capillispiralis* Ca-1, from the plants *Oxalis corniculata* and *Convolvulus arvensis* respectively. Both strains were used for the synthesis of copper naoparticles, which exhibited different biological activity, including, antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer, and insecticides.

In another study, Dong et al. [58], use a rare actinobacteria, in order to control the disease caused by *Staphylococcus warneri* which have a significant impact on human health. The researchers use the strain, *Isoptericola SYSU 333150*, isolated from the plant *Borszczowia aralocaspica*, for the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle using photo-irradiation with sunlight exposition for different periods, they obtained spherical nanoparticles with a size range between, 11–40 nm, which exhibit antimicrobial activity against the pathogen *S. warneri.*

Several others studies confirm that nanoparticles from different metallic natures, sizes and shapes, synthesized by endophytic microorganisms, are attractive options, since they exhibited various pool of biological activities, including, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antiinflamatory, antioxidant [35, 50, 53–56, 60, 62].

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

[62]

**44**

**Plants** *Convolvulus arvensis*

*Ocimum sanctum*

**Table 1.**

*Streptomyces* 

Spherical

3.6–59 nm

Copper

Antimicrobial and insecticides

[61]

*capillispiralis* Ca-1,

*Streptomyces coelicolor*

*Biosynthesis of nanoparticles from endophytic microorganisms with their respective size and biological activity.*

Spherical and ellipsoidal

~25 nm

*Magnesium*

Antimicrobial

**Endophytes**

**Shapes**

**Size**

**Types of** 

**Activity**

**References**

**NPs**

### **6. Methods for the isolation of endophytic microorganism and the characterization of synthesized nanoparticles**

The isolation methods of endophyte aim to obtained microorganisms reside within plant hosts without causing disease symptoms. The isolation protocol followed depend on several factors such as, the target group of endophyte microorganisms you would like to isolate (bacteria, fungi and Actinobacteria), specie of the host plant, the part of plant tissue, sampling season, culture conditions, etc. [71].

The first step consists on surface sterilization of host plant to remove all the surface-living microorganisms [72]. Several methods can be applied, among them, the plant parts will be immersed sequentially, in several solutions of sterilization, including, 70% ethanol for 5 minutes, followed by (3–10%) of sodium hypochlorite for 2 minutes, and then immersed in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for 1 minutes [73]. The final step of sterilization consists to rinse the different plant parts with distilled water three times, and soaked in 10% NaHCO3 to inhibit fungal growth [74].

After surface sterilization, the sterilized tissue samples are cut into small pieces of 1 cm3 , under sterile conditions, and then placed on tryptic soy agar plates followed by incubation for 14 days to verify the sterilization effectiveness. Afterwards, the plant segments are grinding in sterile conditions, and then the samples are serially diluted up to 10−3 with sterile water [75]. Aliquots of 100–200 μL of the dilutions will be spread-plated onto a series of appropriate isolation media (depend on the type of endophytic microorganisms). The appeared colonies are transferred to a new culture medium to obtain a pure culture [76]. The endophytic strains are subjected to molecular identification based on sequencing of 16 s rDNA for bacteria, and 18 s r DNA for fungi.

For nanoparticles synthesis, the endophytic strains are culturing in rotating shaker under optimum culture conditions, including: appropriate culture medium, pH, temperature, agitation. After incubation, the culture is centrifuged to separate the biomass from the supernatant [48]. Both supernanant and biomass are tested for nanoparticles synthesize, in fact microorganisms are able to synthesize nanoparticles extracellularly or intracellularly (**Figure 3**) [77].

For extracellular synthesis of nanoparticles, the obtained supernatant is mixed with a filter-sterilized metal salt solution (e.g. AgNo3), the melange is incubated again, the color changing, of the melange after incubation, can indicate the synthesis of nanoparticles [78]. For example, for silver nanoparticles, the color changes from colorless to deep brown, whereas, for gold nanoparticles, it changes from ruby red to a deep purple color. Afterward, the precipitate of nanoparticles formed can be recovered by centrifugation, washed several times with distiled water and collected in the form of a bottom pellet [79].

For intracellular synthesis of nanoparticles, the biomass obtained after centrifugation, is washed several times with distilled water to remove the traces of culture medium, then mixed with a filter-sterilized solution of metal salt [80]. The synthesis of nanoparticles can be monitored by color change after the incubation period [81]. The naoparticules synthesized inside the cell can be released after break down the cell wall by repeated cycles of ultrasonication. The nanoparticles can be purified from cellular debris, after repeated cycles of centrifugation/washing with distilled water [82].

Physicochemical characterization of nanoparticles is performed to determine the morphology, surface area, porosity, particle size and distribution, aggregation, crystal structure (crystallinity), zeta potential, structural properties and others parameters of biosynthetized nanoparticles [40].

**47**

**Figure 3.**

*Green synthesis of nanoparticles using endophyte microorganisms.*

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development*

• The formation of nanoparticles can be confirmed by spectra analysis of absorption in the wavelength range between 200 and 800 nm [83].

• The X-ray diffraction (XRD), can be used for the determination of the

the crystallinity of synthesized nanoparticles [85].

functional groups present on nanoparticles [86].

structural properties of nanoparticles, such as the chemical composition and

• FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) spectroscopy, is performed to identify the

characterization techniques are applied. This includes the following:

In order to analyse the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, different

• The morphology, size and distribution of nanoparticles can be determined by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), as well as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), since morphological features significantly affect the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

activity of nanoparticles [84].

In order to analyse the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, different characterization techniques are applied. This includes the following:


**Figure 3.** *Green synthesis of nanoparticles using endophyte microorganisms.*

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

growth [74].

DNA for fungi.

of 1 cm3

**6. Methods for the isolation of endophytic microorganism and the** 

The isolation methods of endophyte aim to obtained microorganisms reside within plant hosts without causing disease symptoms. The isolation protocol followed depend on several factors such as, the target group of endophyte microorganisms you would like to isolate (bacteria, fungi and Actinobacteria), specie of the host plant, the part of plant tissue, sampling season, culture conditions, etc. [71]. The first step consists on surface sterilization of host plant to remove all the surface-living microorganisms [72]. Several methods can be applied, among them, the plant parts will be immersed sequentially, in several solutions of sterilization, including, 70% ethanol for 5 minutes, followed by (3–10%) of sodium hypochlorite for 2 minutes, and then immersed in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for 1 minutes [73]. The final step of sterilization consists to rinse the different plant parts with distilled water three times, and soaked in 10% NaHCO3 to inhibit fungal

After surface sterilization, the sterilized tissue samples are cut into small pieces

by incubation for 14 days to verify the sterilization effectiveness. Afterwards, the plant segments are grinding in sterile conditions, and then the samples are serially diluted up to 10−3 with sterile water [75]. Aliquots of 100–200 μL of the dilutions will be spread-plated onto a series of appropriate isolation media (depend on the type of endophytic microorganisms). The appeared colonies are transferred to a new culture medium to obtain a pure culture [76]. The endophytic strains are subjected to molecular identification based on sequencing of 16 s rDNA for bacteria, and 18 s r

For nanoparticles synthesis, the endophytic strains are culturing in rotating shaker under optimum culture conditions, including: appropriate culture medium, pH, temperature, agitation. After incubation, the culture is centrifuged to separate the biomass from the supernatant [48]. Both supernanant and biomass are tested for nanoparticles synthesize, in fact microorganisms are able to synthesize nanopar-

For extracellular synthesis of nanoparticles, the obtained supernatant is mixed with a filter-sterilized metal salt solution (e.g. AgNo3), the melange is incubated again, the color changing, of the melange after incubation, can indicate the synthesis of nanoparticles [78]. For example, for silver nanoparticles, the color changes from colorless to deep brown, whereas, for gold nanoparticles, it changes from ruby red to a deep purple color. Afterward, the precipitate of nanoparticles formed can be recovered by centrifugation, washed several times with distiled

For intracellular synthesis of nanoparticles, the biomass obtained after centrifugation, is washed several times with distilled water to remove the traces of culture medium, then mixed with a filter-sterilized solution of metal salt [80]. The synthesis of nanoparticles can be monitored by color change after the incubation period [81]. The naoparticules synthesized inside the cell can be released after break down the cell wall by repeated cycles of ultrasonication. The nanoparticles can be purified from cellular debris, after repeated cycles of centrifugation/washing with distilled

Physicochemical characterization of nanoparticles is performed to determine the morphology, surface area, porosity, particle size and distribution, aggregation, crystal structure (crystallinity), zeta potential, structural properties and others

ticles extracellularly or intracellularly (**Figure 3**) [77].

water and collected in the form of a bottom pellet [79].

parameters of biosynthetized nanoparticles [40].

, under sterile conditions, and then placed on tryptic soy agar plates followed

**characterization of synthesized nanoparticles**

**46**

water [82].


### **7. Conclusion**

Soil microorganisms have been largely explored as a source for nanoparticle biosynthesis; however, few reports are available about the utilization of endophytic microorganisms for synthesizing nanoparticles, and therefore, it is important to focus research in this promising biological route of nanoscience. However, since most of the endophytic microorganisms are uncultivated, it's important to concentrate researchs in the development of innovating methods for the isolation of this group of microorganisms for further advancement of green synthesis of metal nanomaterials. Additionally, the mechanisms involved in the reduction and stabilization of nanoparticles, using microorganisms, is not well defined, and more elaborated studies are needed to determine all the enzymes and biomolecules involved in the nanoparticle biosynthesis.

### **Author details**

Omar Messaoudi1,2\* and Mourad Bendahou2

1 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Amar Telidji, Laghouat, Algeria

2 Laboratory of Applied Microbiology in Food and Environment, Abou bekr Belkaïd University, Tlemcen, Algeria

\*Address all correspondence to: o.messaoudi@lagh-univ.dz

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**49**

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development*

by microorganisms and their

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[6] Gour A, Jain NK. Advances in green synthesis of nanoparticles. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology. 2019;**47**:844-851. DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2019.1577878

[7] Grasso G, Zane D, Dragone R. Microbial nanotechnology: Challenges and prospects for green biocatalytic synthesis of nanoscale materials for sensoristic and biomedical applications. Nanomaterials. 2020;**10**:11. DOI:

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s11051-009-9607-0

*Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Endophytic Microorganisms: Current Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93734*

### **References**

*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

Zetasizer nanomachine [87].

involved in the nanoparticle biosynthesis.

**7. Conclusion**

**48**

**Author details**

Algeria

Omar Messaoudi1,2\* and Mourad Bendahou2

Belkaïd University, Tlemcen, Algeria

provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Amar Telidji, Laghouat,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

• Particle size can be estimated using, dynamic light scattering (DLS), which can

be used to find the nanoparticles size at extremely low level [85].

• Surface area characterization, including, stability and surface charge of colloidal nanoparticles are evaluated by zeta potential analysis using a

Soil microorganisms have been largely explored as a source for nanoparticle biosynthesis; however, few reports are available about the utilization of endophytic microorganisms for synthesizing nanoparticles, and therefore, it is important to focus research in this promising biological route of nanoscience. However, since most of the endophytic microorganisms are uncultivated, it's important to concentrate researchs in the development of innovating methods for the isolation of this group of microorganisms for further advancement of green synthesis of metal nanomaterials. Additionally, the mechanisms involved in the reduction and stabilization of nanoparticles, using microorganisms, is not well defined, and more elaborated studies are needed to determine all the enzymes and biomolecules

2 Laboratory of Applied Microbiology in Food and Environment, Abou bekr

\*Address all correspondence to: o.messaoudi@lagh-univ.dz

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MMBR.00050-14

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[81] Abdeen S, Geo S, Sukanya S, Praseetha PK, Dhanya RP. Biosynthesis

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*Nanotechnology and the Environment*

Aneurinibacillus migulanus 141, a novel endophyte inhabiting Mimosa pudica L. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2019;**12**(8):3743-3752. DOI: 10.1016/j.

2015;**5**:438-445. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[71] Lu Y, Chen C, Chen H, Zhang J, Chen W. Isolation and identification of endophytic fungi from Actinidia macrosperma and investigation of their bioactivities. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012;**2012**:382742. DOI:

[72] Passari AK, Misha VK, Gupta VK, Singh BP. Chapter 1: Methods used for the recovery of culturable endophytic actinobacteria: An overview. In: Singh BP, Passari AK, Gupta VK, editors. Actinobacteria: Diversity and Biotechnological Applications: New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2018. pp. 1-11

[73] Hallmann J, Berg G, Schulz B. Isolation procedures for endophytic microorganisms. In: Schulz BJE,

2006. pp. 299-314

s11274-009-0159-3

2003;**53**:291-298

[75] Taechowisan T, Lumyong S. Activity of endophytic actinomycetes from roots of Zingiber officinale and Alpinia galena against phytopathogenic fungi. Annales de Microbiologie.

[76] Passari AK, Mishra VK,

Saikia R, Gupta VK, Singh BP. Isolation, abundance and phylogenetic affiliation of endophytic actinomycetes associated with medicinal plants and screening for their in vitro antimicrobial biosynthetic potential. Frontiers in

Boyle CJC, Sieber TN, editors. Microbial Root Endophytes. New York: Springer;

[74] Nimnoi P, Pongsilp N, Lumyong S. Endophytic actinomycetes isolated from Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lec and screening of plant growth promoters production. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2010;**26**:193-203. DOI: 10.1007/

apjtb.2015.04.002

10.1155/2012/382742

[65] Moghaddam AB, Namvar F, Moniri M, Tahir PM, Azizi S, Mohamad R. Nanoparticles

biosynthesized by fungi and yeast: A review of their preparation, properties, and medical applications. Molecules. 2015;**20**(9):16540-16565. DOI: 10.3390/

[66] Shah M, Fawcett D, Sharma S, Tripathy SK, Poinern GEJ. Green of metallic synthesis nanoparticles via biological entities. Material. 2015;**8**:7278-7308. DOI: 10.3390/

[67] Guilger-Casagrande M, Lima R. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles mediated by fungi: A review. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology.

[68] Ait Barka EA, Vatsa P, Sanchez L, Gaveau-Vaillant N, Jacquard C,

Klenk HP, et al. Taxonomy, physiology, and natural products of Actinobacteria. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2016;**80**:1-43. DOI: 10.1128/

2019;**22**(7):287. DOI: 10.3389/

[69] Messaoudi O, Sudarman E, Bendahou M, Jansen R, Stadler M, Wink J. Kenalactams A–E, polyene macrolactams isolated from

[70] Messaoudi O, Bendahou M, Benamar I, Abdelwouhid DE. Identification and preliminary characterization of non-polyene antibiotics secreted by new strain of actinomycete isolated from sebkha of Kenadsa, Algeria. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine.

nocardiopsis CG3. Journal of Natural Products. 2019;**82**:1081-1088. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.8b00708

arabjc.2016.01.005

molecules200916540

ma8115377

fbioe.2019.00287

MMBR.00019-15

**54**

[77] Vetchinkina E, Loshchinina E, Kupryashina M, Burov A, Pylaev T, Nikitina V. Green synthesis of nanoparticles with extracellular and intracellular extracts of basidiomycetes. PeerJ. 2018;**6**:e5237. DOI: 10.7717/ peerj.5237

[78] Karthik L, Kumar G, Vishnu-Kirthi A, Rahuman AA, Rao VB. Streptomyces sp. LK3 mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and its biomedical application. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 2014;**37**:261- 267. DOI: 10.1007/s00449-013-0994-3

[79] Singh H, Du J, Singh P, Yi TH. Extracellular synthesis of silver nanoparticles by pseudomonas sp. THG-LS1.4 and their antimicrobial application. Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis. 2018;**8**:258-264. DOI: 10.1016/j. jpha.2018.04.004

[80] Ahmad A, Mukherjee P, Senapati S, Mandal D, Khan M, Kumar R, et al. Extracellular biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using the fungus Fusarium oxysporum. Colloids and Surfaces, B: Biointerfaces. 2003;**28**:313- 318. DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200700592

[81] Abdeen S, Geo S, Sukanya S, Praseetha PK, Dhanya RP. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from Actinomycetes for therapeutic applications. International Journal of Nano Dimension. 2014;**5**:155-162. DOI: 10.7508/IJND.2014.02.008

[82] Malik P, Shankar R, Malik V, Sharma N, Mukherjee TK. Green chemistry based benign routes for nanoparticle synthesis. Journal of Nanoparticle Research. 2014;**2014**:302429. DOI: 10.1155/2014/302429

[83] Ingale AG, Chaudhari NA. Biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles and potential applications: An eco-friendly approach. Nanomaterials, Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine. 2013;**4**(2):165. DOI: 10.4172/2157-7439.1000165

[84] Pal SL, Jana U, Manna PK, Mohanta GP, Manavalan R. Nanoparticle: An overview of preparation and characterization. Journal of Applied Pharmacology. 2011;**1**(6):228-234

[85] Chauhan RPS, Gupta C, Prakash D. Methodological advancements in green nanotechnology and their applications in biological synthesis of herbal nanoparticles. International Journal of Bioassays. 2012;**1**(7):6-10

[86] Faraji M, Yamini Y, Rezaee M. Magnetic nanoparticles: Synthesis, stabilization, functionalization, characterization, and applications. Journal of the Iranian Chemical Society. 2010;**7**(1):1-37. DOI: 10.1007/ BF03245856

[87] Otsuka H, Nagasaki Y, Kataoka K. PEGylated nanoparticles for biological and pharmaceutical applications. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 2003;**55**(3):403-419

**57**

Section 2

Nanomaterials in Energy

Storage

### Section 2
