**2. Some common metal processing and joining setups**

A schematic diagram of rolling, forging, and high-pressure torsion (HPT) is shown in **Figure 2**. These represent basic processes within metals engineering, which change the shape and microstructure through plastic deformation for different products and applications. **Figure 2a** illustrates the rolling process setup, where the billet is pulled out between pairs of rollers which reduce the thickness of plates and grain size as well as defects like porosity and inclusions of the billet. The resulting refined grains are found to be elongated along the longitudinal direction. In the forging process, the force is imposed on objects either by hammer and anvil or in a large forging tool (called drop hammer) which results in desired and controlled shape changes (**Figure 2b**). Eventually, the HPT setup is one kind of torsion process in

**5**

*Plastic Deformation Behavior in Steels during Metal Forming Processes: A Review*

*Schematic diagram of metal forming processes (a) forging, (b) rolling, (c) high-pressure torsion [41].*

Hydrawedge unit

standard specimen ϕ10 x L15 mm modified specimen ϕ10 x L0.5 mm

**Strain rate (1/s) Machine details** 10−3 to <5 Basic unit, Gleeble

0.1 to 5x102 Cam Plastometer and Drop Test

 to 105 Taylor impact machine More than 105 Gas gun (single & two-stage)

<10−1 Conventional shear machine 10−1 to 102 Hydrawedge unit, Gleeble 10−1 to 103 Torsion unit, Gleeble

to 104 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar

to 104 Double-notch Shear and Punch

to 107 Pressure-shear plate impact machine

to 104 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar

which material undergoes severe plastic deformation via applying both compressive force and twisting action concurrently under high pressure (**Figure 2c**). The sample for SPD is located between two anvils, where the top anvil provides a compressive force on the sample while the bottom side anvil rotates along on axis. This setup generates shear strains in the object which are responsible for the development of ultrafine grains. Therefore these setups can be supportive of favorable mechanical

Important experimental machines, being used for a wide range of strain rates are listed in **Table 1**. In this list, the Gleeble machine can be used for axial compression testing with the strain rate between 0.001 to 100 for standard samples with a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 15 mm. It should be noted that much higher strain rates up to 3000 are feasible when a shorter sample, typically less than 1 mm, is chosen. A wide range of strain rates can be achieved using other compression testing machines, Cam plastometer, Slip Hopkin, Taylor, and gas gun machine.

properties and good product performance.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97607*

**Figure 2.**

10−2 to 100 <3x102

2x102

103

102

103

104

**Table 1.**

**Hot compression testing**

Torsion/Multiaxial/Shear testing

*Wide range of hot compression test setups [42].*

*Plastic Deformation Behavior in Steels during Metal Forming Processes: A Review DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97607*

**Figure 2.**

*Material Flow Analysis*

**Figure 1.**

Some of the major metal processing steps are often involved such as rolling, forging methods with wide temperature ranges (cold, warm and hot deformation temperature ranges) for the grain refinements [26, 27, 29–32]. The high-pressure torsion, equal channel angular pressing (ECAP), direct/indirect extrusion methods etc. are being used for ultrafine grains in which plastic transformation reaches over strain 1 through severe plastic deformation (SPD) [33–35]. In this SPD processes, the large shear stress involved usually results in a complex stress state resulting in a

*Some important examples of industrial applications which developed using metal forming processes.*

During metal forming processing, the steel experiences different metallurgical phenomena like work hardening, dynamic recovery, dynamic recrystallization, flow instabilities, etc. [32, 36–38]. The effect of these metallurgical phenomena can be understood through the interpretation of flow curves [26, 31, 39, 40]. Where, the flow stress dependent on various processing parameters such as temperature, strain rate, and strain, etc. that can typically been described via constitutive equation. This chapter focuses on plastic deformation behavior which can be controlled through processing parameters that affect microstructure refinement and associ-

A schematic diagram of rolling, forging, and high-pressure torsion (HPT) is shown in **Figure 2**. These represent basic processes within metals engineering, which change the shape and microstructure through plastic deformation for different products and applications. **Figure 2a** illustrates the rolling process setup, where the billet is pulled out between pairs of rollers which reduce the thickness of plates and grain size as well as defects like porosity and inclusions of the billet. The resulting refined grains are found to be elongated along the longitudinal direction. In the forging process, the force is imposed on objects either by hammer and anvil or in a large forging tool (called drop hammer) which results in desired and controlled shape changes (**Figure 2b**). Eventually, the HPT setup is one kind of torsion process in

high defect density and homogeneous ultrafine grains.

ated mechanical properties of metals and steels during forming.

**2. Some common metal processing and joining setups**

**4**

*Schematic diagram of metal forming processes (a) forging, (b) rolling, (c) high-pressure torsion [41].*


#### **Table 1.**

*Wide range of hot compression test setups [42].*

which material undergoes severe plastic deformation via applying both compressive force and twisting action concurrently under high pressure (**Figure 2c**). The sample for SPD is located between two anvils, where the top anvil provides a compressive force on the sample while the bottom side anvil rotates along on axis. This setup generates shear strains in the object which are responsible for the development of ultrafine grains. Therefore these setups can be supportive of favorable mechanical properties and good product performance.

Important experimental machines, being used for a wide range of strain rates are listed in **Table 1**. In this list, the Gleeble machine can be used for axial compression testing with the strain rate between 0.001 to 100 for standard samples with a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 15 mm. It should be noted that much higher strain rates up to 3000 are feasible when a shorter sample, typically less than 1 mm, is chosen. A wide range of strain rates can be achieved using other compression testing machines, Cam plastometer, Slip Hopkin, Taylor, and gas gun machine.

#### *Material Flow Analysis*

Some important torsion test setups are listed for shear testing with a wide range of strain rates within the framework of SPD. All of the listed setups are supportive for controlled and taylored TMP in order to achieve an optimized balance of processing costs, time, and materials properties for various industrial applications.
