**Author details**

*Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy*

Hg2+, Cd2+ *Arthrospira platensis* cells

Parathion-methyl *Arthrospira platensis* cells

Paraoxon-methyl *Arthrospira platensis* cells

Triazine *Arthrospira platensis* cells

Sulphamethoxazole MIP-decorated Fe3O4

BPA AuNPs/PB/CNTs-COOH/

(Spirulina)

(Spirulina)

(Spirulina)

(Spirulina)

MNPs@SPCE

GCE

Hg2+ Cu2O@NCs River water

Pb2+, Cd2+ PET-SPE Water 1 nM for both

**148**

**7. Conclusions**

*Applications of EIS in analysis of water.*

**Table 3.**

nants in water, food, and drug matrices.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

**Conflict of interest**

The literature is rich in articles and reviews that investigate the applications of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in detections of various contaminants such as heavy metals, drugs, and pharmaceuticals, as well as pesticides. The advantages that impedance spectroscopy introduces as an electrochemical technique are innumerable. High sensitivity, specificity, selectivity, no time or effort consumption, and being label-free are the major advantages reported in the majority of the surveyed literature. As the mentioned contaminants usually exist as traces in complicated matrices, impedance spectroscopy with the mentioned advantages was usually the electrochemical technique of choice for the detection of these contami-

**Target Sensing interface Matrix LoD Ref Heavy metals**

**Pesticides and herbicides**

Acetamiprid Ag-NG/GCE Wastewater 0.033 pM [75] **Drugs and pharmaceuticals**

P4 ssDNA/Au Tap water 0.90 ng mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> [66]

Municipal wastewater

samples

Municipal wastewater

Municipal wastewater

Municipal wastewater 10<sup>−</sup>20 M and 10<sup>−</sup>20 M

metals

Seawater 0.001 nM [63]

Water 0.045 pM [65]

0.15 nM [79]

10<sup>−</sup>20 M [77]

10<sup>−</sup>18 M [77]

10<sup>−</sup>20 M [77]

[77]

[78]

Marwa El-Azazy Department of Chemistry and Earth Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

\*Address all correspondence to: marwasaid@qu.edu.qa

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
