*7.2.2.6 Hepatocellular carcinoma*

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the 6th most common cancer, and the 4th most common cause of cancer-related mortality. The major risk factors include hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), alcohol, aflatoxin contaminated foods, obesity, smoking and type 2 diabetes besides pesticides. Pesticides exposure has been associated with increased risk of developing HCC.

### *7.2.3 Reproductive effects*

EDCs are emerging as one of the leading risks and are recognized as serious and urgent threats to public health. In laboratory studies, EDCs are reported to shorten gestation, alter intrauterine growth, and disrupt metabolic programming.

**71**

*Pesticides and Human Health*

hormone receptors.

pregnancy loss [60].

**8. Conclusion**

quences including cancers.

could increase the longer-term risks.

and determine the level of exposure.

use around the world.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93806*

Prenatal exposure to EDCs can affect fetal neurodevelopment through disruption of peroxisome proliferator activated receptors, mainly estrogen receptors, and thyroid

Failure of testosterone production in Leydig cells leads to failure of testosteronebound androgen receptor-mediated gene transcription necessary for spermatogenesis. Many studies have shown that various pesticides decrease testosterone levels. Testosterone is required for the final stages of sperm maturation, so a decrease in intra-testicular testosterone is likely to impair fertility. Vinclozolin (fungicide) and chlorpyrifos (OP) can reduce testosterone production. Exposure to higher concentrations of OP and dialkyl phosphates (metabolites of OPs), p,p'-DDE, fenvalerate and atrazine (chlorotriazine herbicide) have been consistently associated with

A study of male children from a village of cashew plantations, where endosulfan (OC, EDC) had been aerially sprayed for more than 20 years, showed a delay in sexual maturity and an alteration in sex hormone synthesis. Endosulfan, in exposed mothers, can move via trans-placental route and breast feeding to children. Exposure during critical periods of development might contribute to decline conception rates and increased incidence of female reproductive disorders, such as altered cyclicity, endometriosis, fetal growth retardation, and

A high incidence of spontaneous abortions 81.02 / 1000 live newborns was reported in Valparaíso Region (agricultural area) compared to 9.5 /1000 live newborns in the rest of Chile. A 28% incidence of congenital malformations in live newborns was reported in the O'Higgins Region (agricultural area) compared to

Pesticides are used in managing pests of agricultural and public health importance, and their use will continue in future because of food security and vector control. Additionally, pesticides are used at home in fumigation for structural pests and to mitigate household pest using aerosols or sprays. It is difficult to eliminate pesticides in the near future, but they should be used with care and caution. Most pesticides are potentially toxic to human beings resulting in severe health conse-

Epidemiological evidence suggests that there is an increased incidence of different diseases including leukemia, lymphoma, and several other types of cancers in farmers, and those who are associated with application of pesticides. There is also evidence that parental exposure, as well as, exposure in early life or adolescence

Since animal studies are problematic, expensive and often generate ethical problems, cell cultures are increasingly used as a model of research. Correctly conducted and properly selected, the cell culture is an excellent experimental model reflecting human exposure to different xenobiotics through all relevant routes. The cell cultures are also becoming more widely used to study the effect of pesticides on the human body at a molecular level, which is necessary to understand the hazards

Some pesticides (OCs) are no longer used worldwide due to their persistence and toxicity. However, their residues or metabolites are still found in food and water samples. The use of OPs and carbamate insecticides has been reduced since the arrival of newer chemistries in different parts of the world but most of them are still

lower semen quality (sperm concentration, motility, and morphology).

only 15% of cases in non-agricultural in Chile [14].

#### *Pesticides and Human Health DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93806*

*Emerging Contaminants*

*7.2.2.3 Brain cancer*

brain tumors.

*7.2.2.4 Breast cancer*

cancer in women (**Table 3**).

*7.2.2.6 Hepatocellular carcinoma*

*7.2.3 Reproductive effects*

*7.2.2.5 Prostate cancer*

whose mothers had been exposed while pregnant had increased rates of all types of leukemia. Children living on farms and those exposed to household pesticides have increased risk of leukemia. Association between occupational exposure to pesticides and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) has been reported from Spain. A nationwide study in France showed a moderate increase in incidence of childhood

Brain tumors are the most common solid tumors in children and the leading cause of cancer-related mortality during childhood. A positive association has been reported between parental occupational, prenatal or residential exposure, living on a farm, mothers living on farms, rural activity and childhood brain tumors. Increased risk for primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs) was associated with maternal exposure living on pig or poultry farms. Exposure to pyrethroid formulations used to control mosquitoes and cockroaches at home also increase the risk of

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women. About

Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer in men globally, and accounts

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the 6th most common cancer, and the 4th most common cause of cancer-related mortality. The major risk factors include hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), alcohol, aflatoxin contaminated foods, obesity, smoking and type 2 diabetes besides pesticides. Pesticides exposure

EDCs are emerging as one of the leading risks and are recognized as serious and urgent threats to public health. In laboratory studies, EDCs are reported to shorten gestation, alter intrauterine growth, and disrupt metabolic programming.

for 7% of all cancers. More than 95% of cases of prostate cancer are androgendependent. The higher incidence of prostate cancer, at least in part, has been associated with the hormone disrupting pesticides and consistent positive associations

between prostate cancer and pesticide exposure have been reported.

has been associated with increased risk of developing HCC.

650 pesticides out of the 800 used worldwide can affect the functioning of the endocrine system and are called endocrine disrupting pesticides (EDPs). EDPs have the potential ability to act as tumor promoters and increasing risk of breast cancer. All women diagnosed with breast cancer between 1995 and 2005 in the city of Arica (geographic area that received massive aerial applications of malathion in 1980) were 5.7 times more likely to suffer from breast cancer compared to women diagnosed during the same period in the city of Iquique, Chile [14]. Several chemical classes of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides have been associated with breast

AL in municipalities where viticulture is common.

**70**

Prenatal exposure to EDCs can affect fetal neurodevelopment through disruption of peroxisome proliferator activated receptors, mainly estrogen receptors, and thyroid hormone receptors.

Failure of testosterone production in Leydig cells leads to failure of testosteronebound androgen receptor-mediated gene transcription necessary for spermatogenesis. Many studies have shown that various pesticides decrease testosterone levels. Testosterone is required for the final stages of sperm maturation, so a decrease in intra-testicular testosterone is likely to impair fertility. Vinclozolin (fungicide) and chlorpyrifos (OP) can reduce testosterone production. Exposure to higher concentrations of OP and dialkyl phosphates (metabolites of OPs), p,p'-DDE, fenvalerate and atrazine (chlorotriazine herbicide) have been consistently associated with lower semen quality (sperm concentration, motility, and morphology).

A study of male children from a village of cashew plantations, where endosulfan (OC, EDC) had been aerially sprayed for more than 20 years, showed a delay in sexual maturity and an alteration in sex hormone synthesis. Endosulfan, in exposed mothers, can move via trans-placental route and breast feeding to children. Exposure during critical periods of development might contribute to decline conception rates and increased incidence of female reproductive disorders, such as altered cyclicity, endometriosis, fetal growth retardation, and pregnancy loss [60].

A high incidence of spontaneous abortions 81.02 / 1000 live newborns was reported in Valparaíso Region (agricultural area) compared to 9.5 /1000 live newborns in the rest of Chile. A 28% incidence of congenital malformations in live newborns was reported in the O'Higgins Region (agricultural area) compared to only 15% of cases in non-agricultural in Chile [14].
