**Acknowledgements**

maximum kerosene injection quantity is increased by about 50% with water injection. The corresponding mass ratios of the sprayed water over kerosene are shown in **Figure 14(b)**. It can be seen that the mass ratio is close to 1:1 at three engine

*Results for the maximum amount of injected kerosene with/without water injection under different engine*

*Numerical and Experimental Studies on Combustion Engines and Vehicles*

**Figure 15** shows the comparison of IMEP improvement under three different engine speeds. The IMEP can be increased from less than 8 to nearly 10 with water injection for each engine speed. The results show that using water injection can improve the kerosene injection quantity, leading to an increase of the IMEP and the power output of the engine. This is because after spraying water, the liquid water evaporates and absorbs heat, and the temperature in the cylinder decreases. Accordingly, the compression and radiation effect of the burnt gas imposed on the unburnt end gas weakens, and the autoignition time becomes longer, avoiding the violent detonation. The allowable charge of fresh mixture in the cylinder increases. Thus, more fuel can be injected and the engine's output power is improved. Meanwhile, it can be seen that the IMEP of the original engine with gasoline can reach 13 bar, and the IMEP of the kerosene fuel with water spray still needs to be

*Maximum improvements of the IMEP for the engine fuelled with kerosene together with water injection.*

speeds.

**Figure 14.**

*speeds (a) and the mass ratio of water over kerosene (b).*

enhanced.

**Figure 15.**

**106**

The authors would like to thank for the support of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51876009).

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## **Acronyms**


*Numerical and Experimental Studies on Combustion Engines and Vehicles*

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