**4. Potential of biochar use to boost East African agricultural productivity**

East Africa is among the countries with the highest nutrient loss across sub-Saharan Africa with annual nutrient depletion rate of 41 kg N, 4 kg P and 31 kg K per hectare [40]. Even though soil fertility is quite dynamic, its inherent chemical, biological, physical, and anthropogenic characteristics play a significant role too [40]. Most soils in East Africa are acidic without enough nutrients to support sustainable crop production. This is because a bigger portion of the soils are extremely weathered, making them nutrient-deficient, especially with a limited stock of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur [41]. Similarly, soil acidity is influenced by the robust soluble aluminum, which is poisonous to most crops. Therefore, to ensure sustained crop productivity, improved soil fertility management is inevitable. This calls for sustainable and cheaper soil fertilization ventures like the use of biochar in these resource-constrained countries [40].

However, despite the known benefits of biochar to the scientific world, other stakeholders have concerns that are yet to be addressed. One of the significant issues is the uncertainty regarding the sustainable supply of feedstock for biochar production. Policymakers argue that mass production of biochar would need vast land for the feedstock required [1]. On the other hand, farmers still seem not to acknowledge that the crop residues within their farms can serve as biochar feedstock. The lack of reliable evidence in the literature regarding the sufficiency of crop residues as feedstock for biochar production in the context of East Africa is a gap. This section reiterates the fact that every field, farm, or region has the potential of generating enough biomass feedstock for biochar production. The analyses were carried out with a focus on the East African region. A few recent field and pot trials on the effectiveness of biochar on soil fertility enhancement have yielded very positive results [41]. Thus, the empirical evidence illustrated in this chapter reinforces the feasibility and sufficiency of biochar technology to impact the agricultural performance of smallholder farmers in East Africa amidst the effects of climate change.

According to the United Nations (UN) regional boundary delineation, East African region spans from the Red Sea coast in Eritrea, through to the Horn of Africa (Somalia) transcending the Indian Ocean coast line up to Mozambique. It further stretches inwards to Zimbabwe on the south, Zambia on the southwest and along the western rift valley encompassing Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, South Sudan, and Sudan [4]. It also includes Indo-Oceanian Islands like Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, and Comoros [42]. However, based on this chapter, a close focus will be given to the six countries forming the East African Community block. These countries include Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and South-Sudan (although scarce information is available) (**Figure 3**). Agriculture still contributes substantially to the economic growth of East African, and it offers job opportunities to more than 70% of the region's population [44]. **Figure 4** illustrates the percentage of contributions of agriculture to the GDP of the countries in comparison with other sectors.

Despite this immense reliance on agriculture, agricultural production in East African countries is predominantly under subsistence basis. The bulging population, perennial low productivity recorded, alarming food insecurity and high demand for rich nutrient grains compound the desperate state of the agricultural sector in the region. Notwithstanding, the region is still estimated to harbor excellent agricultural potential. However, to harness this potential, sustainable and increased agricultural extensification via appropriate mechanization, improved land use management, and climate-adapted farming methods are inevitable [45].

The soils in East Africa have been affected by unsustainable continuous land use, non-conservation tillage methods employed, and native volcanic soils that are prone to degradation [4]. Consequently, the antidote to this menace is embracing sustainable and climate-friendly farming methods capable of increasing and preserving soil fertility. Biochar technology is one such viable means to achieve this noble vision [3].

### **4.1 How abundant are agricultural residues in East Africa?**

The scalability of pyrolysis technologies in East African countries is yet at a very dismal stage. The primary reason is the low level of industrialization and little

**131**

**Figure 3.**

*Biochar Potential in Improving Agricultural Production in East Africa*

appreciation of such technologies. This, however, does not disannul pyrolysis' potential to foster sustainable agricultural production through biochar production and use [7]. To underscore this hypothetical biochar usefulness in the region, critical scenario-based analysis seeking to disentangle the uncertainty on the availability and sustainability of biomass feedstock is paramount. The revelation will further contribute to changing the perception of both policymakers and farmers about biochar potential in the region [1]. As earlier stated, the feedstock can be generated from a range of biomass residues; the author, however, explore the

Maize is the most popular crop grown in East Africa because it is the staple food. Despite this, its productivity per hectare is below the estimated regional average (2.5 tons per hectare). Maize is a very high nutrient feeder crop; thus, its production requires extensive fertilizer use [47]. Other crops grown in the region include cash

potential in crops specifically on maize [46].

*Map of East African countries. Source: United Nations [43].*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92195*

*Biochar Potential in Improving Agricultural Production in East Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92195*

### **Figure 3.**

*Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety*

climate change.

comparison with other sectors.

is influenced by the robust soluble aluminum, which is poisonous to most crops. Therefore, to ensure sustained crop productivity, improved soil fertility management is inevitable. This calls for sustainable and cheaper soil fertilization ventures

However, despite the known benefits of biochar to the scientific world, other stakeholders have concerns that are yet to be addressed. One of the significant issues is the uncertainty regarding the sustainable supply of feedstock for biochar production. Policymakers argue that mass production of biochar would need vast land for the feedstock required [1]. On the other hand, farmers still seem not to acknowledge that the crop residues within their farms can serve as biochar feedstock. The lack of reliable evidence in the literature regarding the sufficiency of crop residues as feedstock for biochar production in the context of East Africa is a gap. This section reiterates the fact that every field, farm, or region has the potential of generating enough biomass feedstock for biochar production. The analyses were carried out with a focus on the East African region. A few recent field and pot trials on the effectiveness of biochar on soil fertility enhancement have yielded very positive results [41]. Thus, the empirical evidence illustrated in this chapter reinforces the feasibility and sufficiency of biochar technology to impact the agricultural performance of smallholder farmers in East Africa amidst the effects of

According to the United Nations (UN) regional boundary delineation, East African region spans from the Red Sea coast in Eritrea, through to the Horn of Africa (Somalia) transcending the Indian Ocean coast line up to Mozambique. It further stretches inwards to Zimbabwe on the south, Zambia on the southwest and along the western rift valley encompassing Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, South Sudan, and Sudan [4]. It also includes Indo-Oceanian Islands like Madagascar, Seychelles, Mauritius, and Comoros [42]. However, based on this chapter, a close focus will be given to the six countries forming the East African Community block. These countries include Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and South-Sudan (although scarce information is available) (**Figure 3**). Agriculture still contributes substantially to the economic growth of East African, and it offers job opportunities to more than 70% of the region's population [44]. **Figure 4** illustrates the percentage of contributions of agriculture to the GDP of the countries in

Despite this immense reliance on agriculture, agricultural production in East African countries is predominantly under subsistence basis. The bulging population, perennial low productivity recorded, alarming food insecurity and high demand for rich nutrient grains compound the desperate state of the agricultural sector in the region. Notwithstanding, the region is still estimated to harbor excellent agricultural potential. However, to harness this potential, sustainable and increased agricultural extensification via appropriate mechanization, improved land use management, and climate-adapted farming methods are inevitable [45]. The soils in East Africa have been affected by unsustainable continuous land use, non-conservation tillage methods employed, and native volcanic soils that are prone to degradation [4]. Consequently, the antidote to this menace is embracing sustainable and climate-friendly farming methods capable of increasing and preserving soil fertility. Biochar technology is one such viable means to achieve this noble

The scalability of pyrolysis technologies in East African countries is yet at a very dismal stage. The primary reason is the low level of industrialization and little

**4.1 How abundant are agricultural residues in East Africa?**

like the use of biochar in these resource-constrained countries [40].

**130**

vision [3].

appreciation of such technologies. This, however, does not disannul pyrolysis' potential to foster sustainable agricultural production through biochar production and use [7]. To underscore this hypothetical biochar usefulness in the region, critical scenario-based analysis seeking to disentangle the uncertainty on the availability and sustainability of biomass feedstock is paramount. The revelation will further contribute to changing the perception of both policymakers and farmers about biochar potential in the region [1]. As earlier stated, the feedstock can be generated from a range of biomass residues; the author, however, explore the potential in crops specifically on maize [46].

Maize is the most popular crop grown in East Africa because it is the staple food. Despite this, its productivity per hectare is below the estimated regional average (2.5 tons per hectare). Maize is a very high nutrient feeder crop; thus, its production requires extensive fertilizer use [47]. Other crops grown in the region include cash

### **Figure 4.**

*Percentage contribution of agriculture to countries GDP compared to other sectors based on 2017 estimates. Source: The Centre of Intelligence, CIA [44].*

crops such as tea, coffee, sugarcane, pyrethrum, and cotton; and food crops such as rice, wheat, beans, groundnuts, millet, sorghum, bananas, and potatoes, among others [48]. Taking maize as the most common crop, an illustration of its residues adequacy for biochar production is highlighted. **Table 4** outlines the estimates of maize production in the year 2019 versus the area planted across the selected East African countries.

The greatest challenge has been the inability to estimate the quantity of residues resulting from maize farming accurately. Even though proper records and monitoring of maize grains and other crops exists, very little has been done to quantify crop residues [49]. Nevertheless, in this section, the residues-to-product ratios (RPRs) estimation method is used. It is one of the most reliable ways to compute residue mass of any crop [49, 50]. Generally, maize crop generates 12% husks, 27% leaves, 49% stem, and 12% cob residues of the total plant mass [50]. Thus, the RPRs for maize residue are as follows: 2 for the stalk, 0.273 for cob, and 0.2 for husks. These factors are systematically used to quantify the possible maize residue that can be generated based on the current maize production rates in the East African countries


**133**

*Biochar Potential in Improving Agricultural Production in East Africa*

(**Table 4**). Since the recorded crop masses are weighed in N kg, the respective residue masses are as follows: 76% representing stalk residue (leaves 27% and stem 49%) is 2.0 N kg at 15% moisture content, 12% representing cob residue is 0.273 N kg at 7.53% moisture content, and 12% representing husk residue is 0.2 N kg at 11.11% moisture content. When summed up, the expected total residue mass from the maize crop is approximately 2.47 N kg. Thus, expected total residue mass is

Consequently, a total of 13.5 million tons of maize is produced in East Africa under the total planted area of 8.1 million hectares. This implies that 33.3 million tons (13,471,000 × 2.47) of residues are generated annually. These residues are potential feedstock for pyrolysis for biochar production. To further estimate the possible amount of biochar that can be generated from these residues, pyrolysis parameters like residence time and heating temperature are paramount. Omulo et al. [29], Cantrell et al. [39] and Djurić et al. [51] noted that subjecting residues to temperature regimes of 300–650°C can lead to a biochar yield of between 40 and 28%. Thus, supposing that maize residues are pyrolyzed at a low temperature of 300°C, it is possible to generate up to 40% biochar as by-products. Thus, the rate of conversion of residues to biochar is taken as 0.4. This means that from the total mass

of residues generated, about 13.3 million tons of biochar can be produced.

**4.2 Economic savings and biochar adoption potential for agricultural use**

A plethora of evidence has shown that biochar use has the potential to improve agricultural productivity, especially among the acidic weathered soils [46]. Further proofs indicate that biochar application can double maize yield by application of only 4 tons per hectare [52]. Because soil degradation in East Africa has not escalated to irredeemable limits, proper biochar application is projected to have more profound impacts on crops productivity. Consequently, utilizing biochar to fertilize the staple maize farms can minimize the cost of fertilizers in the region while the saved revenue is used to extensify farming operations. Based on the estimations by Berazneva [41, 53], the mean shadow value of maize residues for farm soil fertility

In comparison, an estimated cost of 0.04 USD/kg of fertilizer is conserved when the same residues are left on the field as mulch [53]. These values may differ slightly when pyrolysis costs are factored. Nevertheless, biochar production and utilization

Hypothetically, considering the current low maize yield potential of the East African region, 1.7 tons per hectare, every hectare of maize would generate a total of 4199 kg of residues (**Table 5**). If these residues were to be utilized in biochar generation via pyrolysis process, then approximately \$67.18 cost of fertilizer can be saved in 1 hectare of land. This implies that with the current price of \$29.75 per 50 kg bag of diammonium phosphate (DAP), \$24.05 per 50 kg bag of urea, and \$29.15

will potentially maximize the residue used to improve soil quality.

estimated to have long time effects on the soil [3].

amendment is 0.07 USD/kg.

However, what percentage of the planted area in the region can be sustained by the produced biochar? In principle, biochar application can be made in two ways: a one-time application where biochar is applied at the required rate or an intermittent application where biochar is progressively applied until the acceptable threshold is achieved. Assuming that one-time biochar application is employed, Major [35] recommends the rate of 5 tons of biochar per hectare. Thus, based on the probable biochar yield in East Africa, a total of 2.7 million hectares (approximately 30% of the total planted area) can be adequately fertilized by biochar every season. Moreover, noting that biochar has a long decay life, even a one-time application is

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92195*

2.47 N kg [4, 50].

*Source: The US Department of Agriculture, USDA [27]. \* South Sudan data are based on 2016 statistics. Source: McKee [26].*

### **Table 4.**

*Maize production, area planted and yield estimates in East Africa as of 2019.*

*Biochar Potential in Improving Agricultural Production in East Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92195*

*Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety*

crops such as tea, coffee, sugarcane, pyrethrum, and cotton; and food crops such as rice, wheat, beans, groundnuts, millet, sorghum, bananas, and potatoes, among others [48]. Taking maize as the most common crop, an illustration of its residues adequacy for biochar production is highlighted. **Table 4** outlines the estimates of maize production in the year 2019 versus the area planted across the selected East

*Percentage contribution of agriculture to countries GDP compared to other sectors based on 2017 estimates.* 

The greatest challenge has been the inability to estimate the quantity of residues resulting from maize farming accurately. Even though proper records and monitoring of maize grains and other crops exists, very little has been done to quantify crop residues [49]. Nevertheless, in this section, the residues-to-product ratios (RPRs) estimation method is used. It is one of the most reliable ways to compute residue mass of any crop [49, 50]. Generally, maize crop generates 12% husks, 27% leaves, 49% stem, and 12% cob residues of the total plant mass [50]. Thus, the RPRs for maize residue are as follows: 2 for the stalk, 0.273 for cob, and 0.2 for husks. These factors are systematically used to quantify the possible maize residue that can be generated based on the current maize production rates in the East African countries

**Country Production (×1000 MT) Planted area (×1000 Ha) Yield (MT/Ha)** Kenya 3400 2000 1.7 Tanzania 6200 4200 1.5 Uganda 2800 1150 2.4 Rwanda 411 250 1.6 Burundi 260 180 1.4 South Sudan\* 400 330 1.2 **Total 13,471 8110 1.7**

**132**

*\**

**Table 4.**

*Source: McKee [26].*

African countries.

*Source: The Centre of Intelligence, CIA [44].*

*Source: The US Department of Agriculture, USDA [27].*

*Maize production, area planted and yield estimates in East Africa as of 2019.*

*South Sudan data are based on 2016 statistics.* 

**Figure 4.**

(**Table 4**). Since the recorded crop masses are weighed in N kg, the respective residue masses are as follows: 76% representing stalk residue (leaves 27% and stem 49%) is 2.0 N kg at 15% moisture content, 12% representing cob residue is 0.273 N kg at 7.53% moisture content, and 12% representing husk residue is 0.2 N kg at 11.11% moisture content. When summed up, the expected total residue mass from the maize crop is approximately 2.47 N kg. Thus, expected total residue mass is 2.47 N kg [4, 50].

Consequently, a total of 13.5 million tons of maize is produced in East Africa under the total planted area of 8.1 million hectares. This implies that 33.3 million tons (13,471,000 × 2.47) of residues are generated annually. These residues are potential feedstock for pyrolysis for biochar production. To further estimate the possible amount of biochar that can be generated from these residues, pyrolysis parameters like residence time and heating temperature are paramount. Omulo et al. [29], Cantrell et al. [39] and Djurić et al. [51] noted that subjecting residues to temperature regimes of 300–650°C can lead to a biochar yield of between 40 and 28%. Thus, supposing that maize residues are pyrolyzed at a low temperature of 300°C, it is possible to generate up to 40% biochar as by-products. Thus, the rate of conversion of residues to biochar is taken as 0.4. This means that from the total mass of residues generated, about 13.3 million tons of biochar can be produced.

However, what percentage of the planted area in the region can be sustained by the produced biochar? In principle, biochar application can be made in two ways: a one-time application where biochar is applied at the required rate or an intermittent application where biochar is progressively applied until the acceptable threshold is achieved. Assuming that one-time biochar application is employed, Major [35] recommends the rate of 5 tons of biochar per hectare. Thus, based on the probable biochar yield in East Africa, a total of 2.7 million hectares (approximately 30% of the total planted area) can be adequately fertilized by biochar every season. Moreover, noting that biochar has a long decay life, even a one-time application is estimated to have long time effects on the soil [3].

### **4.2 Economic savings and biochar adoption potential for agricultural use**

A plethora of evidence has shown that biochar use has the potential to improve agricultural productivity, especially among the acidic weathered soils [46]. Further proofs indicate that biochar application can double maize yield by application of only 4 tons per hectare [52]. Because soil degradation in East Africa has not escalated to irredeemable limits, proper biochar application is projected to have more profound impacts on crops productivity. Consequently, utilizing biochar to fertilize the staple maize farms can minimize the cost of fertilizers in the region while the saved revenue is used to extensify farming operations. Based on the estimations by Berazneva [41, 53], the mean shadow value of maize residues for farm soil fertility amendment is 0.07 USD/kg.

In comparison, an estimated cost of 0.04 USD/kg of fertilizer is conserved when the same residues are left on the field as mulch [53]. These values may differ slightly when pyrolysis costs are factored. Nevertheless, biochar production and utilization will potentially maximize the residue used to improve soil quality.

Hypothetically, considering the current low maize yield potential of the East African region, 1.7 tons per hectare, every hectare of maize would generate a total of 4199 kg of residues (**Table 5**). If these residues were to be utilized in biochar generation via pyrolysis process, then approximately \$67.18 cost of fertilizer can be saved in 1 hectare of land. This implies that with the current price of \$29.75 per 50 kg bag of diammonium phosphate (DAP), \$24.05 per 50 kg bag of urea, and \$29.15


**Table 5.**

*Possible area under biochar application as a percentage of the planted area at country level.*

per 50 kg bag of NPK fertilizers [54], the saved cost can enable farmers to buy two more bags of fertilizers respectively. Ideally, this will reduce the amount of chemical fertilizers applied to the farm by two bags but with the same prospect of crop yield.

The basis of biochar production and use adoption in East Africa hangs on the current practices and use of crop residues in the region, especially the principal food crop, maize. According to Berazneva [41], most of the residues are burnt in situ on the farms to clean the land for the subsequent season and also to sterilize traces of pests and diseases. On the other hand, most farmers leave the residues on the farms for soil amendment even though their farms are susceptible to open grazing. Still, other farmers use the residues as a fuel source besides feeding their animals. Therefore, adoption of biochar technology to sustainably manage the generation of residues for fertilization can empower an Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) system.

This model of quantifying maize residues for biochar production underscores the potential of every country to achieve biochar application rate of 5 tons per hectare. The percentage areas that can be sustained by biochar in comparison to the planted areas depict that potential crop yield increment of the region (**Table 5**). Even the smallholder farmers have the opportunity to boost their productivity due to biochar application [55].

### **5. Possible barriers to biochar production in East Africa**

Promotion and adoption of biochar technology in East Africa and across entire sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is hampered by several obstacles ranging from policy and legal frameworks, institutional, socio-economic, fiscal, ecological, health, and technical issues [1]. This is majorly due to the lack of workable local policies and legal frameworks highlighting the rationale, the terms and conditions of biochar production as well as the associated technological aspects [41]. As a consequence, necessary measures to fast-track these impediments are deemed paramount and thus demands urgent actions as illustrated in **Figure 5**.

Borrowing a leaf from promotion and adoption of other renewable energy technologies, it is paramount that biochar technology is adapted to the local

**135**

involved [1].

**Figure 5.**

*Gwenzi [1].*

Saharan Africa.

**6. Future of biochar production and use**

climate change mitigation would highly incentivize biochar use.

*Biochar Potential in Improving Agricultural Production in East Africa*

conditions and realities and should be affordable as possible. Deliberate capacity building on biochar technology through research and innovations channeled through various social strata can also break these constraints. Thus, for biochar technology to be feasible in East Africa, smallholder farmers should be able to understand the technology and afford the production and investment costs

*Barriers to biochar and co-products production and use in SSA and viable interventions actions. Source:* 

Another bottleneck to upscaling of biochar technology is the negative attitudes and perception surrounding it, especially by the majority risk-averse smallholder farmers. Discourses compound these cynicisms on nature conservation, competing interests, and deprivation of the scarce animal feeds [53]. The general belief that biochar production leads to deforestation besides being a complicated technology is quite difficult to disentangle. Nevertheless, proper knowledge sharing, supported by evidenced-based research, can serve as the most persuasive argument against such antagonistic ideologies. Further, the real potential and benefits of sustainable production and use of biochar for crop production can be underscored based on the perceived usefulness. Improved crop production implies better food security, poverty reduction, and reduced mortality rates. These challenges are faced by a majority of resource-constrained smallholder families across entire sub-

Biochar technology continues to offer numerous opportunities for developing economies. Apart from its suitability in agricultural production, biochar is highly an efficient and safe source of heat energy for small households compared to the current conventional use of charcoal [3]. Charcoal fires are usually operated openly, exposing then to inefficient heat transfer and air pollution, which can cause health complications too. Therefore, harnessing biochar production from crop residues offers excellent prospects for both energy and income generation even among smallholder families across the region. Government-led compensation schemes based on carbon credits on the amount of carbon sequestered and participation in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92195*

*Biochar Potential in Improving Agricultural Production in East Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92195*

### **Figure 5.**

*Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety*

**Planted area (×1000 Ha)**

*\*Estimates are based on 2017 statistics except for South Sudan it is 2016.*

**Residue (×1000T)**

Kenya 3400 2000 8398 3359.2 671.84 33.59 Tanzania 6200 4200 15,314 6125.6 1225.12 29.17 Uganda 2800 1150 6916 2766.4 553.28 48.11 Rwanda 411 250 1015.17 406.068 81.2136 32.49 Burundi 260 180 642.2 256.88 51.376 28.54

**Total 13,471 8110 33273.37 13309.348 2661.8696** 32.82

400 330 988 395.2 79.04 23.95

**Biochar (×1000T)**

**Area applied (×1000Ha)**

**Covered area as percentage of planted area**

**(×1000 MT)**

**Country Production** 

South Sudan\*

**Table 5.**

*Source: USDA [48].*

Management (ISFM) system.

to biochar application [55].

per 50 kg bag of NPK fertilizers [54], the saved cost can enable farmers to buy two more bags of fertilizers respectively. Ideally, this will reduce the amount of chemical fertilizers applied to the farm by two bags but with the same prospect of crop yield. The basis of biochar production and use adoption in East Africa hangs on the current practices and use of crop residues in the region, especially the principal food crop, maize. According to Berazneva [41], most of the residues are burnt in situ on the farms to clean the land for the subsequent season and also to sterilize traces of pests and diseases. On the other hand, most farmers leave the residues on the farms for soil amendment even though their farms are susceptible to open grazing. Still, other farmers use the residues as a fuel source besides feeding their animals. Therefore, adoption of biochar technology to sustainably manage the generation of residues for fertilization can empower an Integrated Soil Fertility

*Possible area under biochar application as a percentage of the planted area at country level.*

This model of quantifying maize residues for biochar production underscores the potential of every country to achieve biochar application rate of 5 tons per hectare. The percentage areas that can be sustained by biochar in comparison to the planted areas depict that potential crop yield increment of the region (**Table 5**). Even the smallholder farmers have the opportunity to boost their productivity due

Promotion and adoption of biochar technology in East Africa and across entire sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is hampered by several obstacles ranging from policy and legal frameworks, institutional, socio-economic, fiscal, ecological, health, and technical issues [1]. This is majorly due to the lack of workable local policies and legal frameworks highlighting the rationale, the terms and conditions of biochar production as well as the associated technological aspects [41]. As a consequence, necessary measures to fast-track these impediments are deemed paramount and

Borrowing a leaf from promotion and adoption of other renewable energy technologies, it is paramount that biochar technology is adapted to the local

**5. Possible barriers to biochar production in East Africa**

thus demands urgent actions as illustrated in **Figure 5**.

**134**

*Barriers to biochar and co-products production and use in SSA and viable interventions actions. Source: Gwenzi [1].*

conditions and realities and should be affordable as possible. Deliberate capacity building on biochar technology through research and innovations channeled through various social strata can also break these constraints. Thus, for biochar technology to be feasible in East Africa, smallholder farmers should be able to understand the technology and afford the production and investment costs involved [1].

Another bottleneck to upscaling of biochar technology is the negative attitudes and perception surrounding it, especially by the majority risk-averse smallholder farmers. Discourses compound these cynicisms on nature conservation, competing interests, and deprivation of the scarce animal feeds [53]. The general belief that biochar production leads to deforestation besides being a complicated technology is quite difficult to disentangle. Nevertheless, proper knowledge sharing, supported by evidenced-based research, can serve as the most persuasive argument against such antagonistic ideologies. Further, the real potential and benefits of sustainable production and use of biochar for crop production can be underscored based on the perceived usefulness. Improved crop production implies better food security, poverty reduction, and reduced mortality rates. These challenges are faced by a majority of resource-constrained smallholder families across entire sub-Saharan Africa.

### **6. Future of biochar production and use**

Biochar technology continues to offer numerous opportunities for developing economies. Apart from its suitability in agricultural production, biochar is highly an efficient and safe source of heat energy for small households compared to the current conventional use of charcoal [3]. Charcoal fires are usually operated openly, exposing then to inefficient heat transfer and air pollution, which can cause health complications too. Therefore, harnessing biochar production from crop residues offers excellent prospects for both energy and income generation even among smallholder families across the region. Government-led compensation schemes based on carbon credits on the amount of carbon sequestered and participation in climate change mitigation would highly incentivize biochar use.

With proper organization, biochar producers can significantly benefit from the improved market where they can sell their products and even via cooperatives to get better bargaining power. Access to the improved energy source for domestic use like biochar can create time for women to be involved in other more income-generating activities. Consequently, increased income will lead to improved quality of life among their households [3]. Biochar use can be diversified without interfering with the necessary amounts needed for soil amendments and increased crop productivity [4].

Critics have pointed out that sufficient biochar production may potentially lead to deforestation and that the use of inappropriate production methods may also result in air pollution [1]. Nevertheless, as earlier stated, sustainable biochar generation might not be dependent on a single biomass source. Instead, sourcing biomass residues from a wide range as forest products, crop wastes, animal wastes, biodegradable landfills, urban, and construction bio-wastes are more viable [17, 29]. This means that in future, pyrolysis techniques employing efficient bio-reactors for biochar production will potentially minimize any heat loss and pollution [3] while maximizing the yields. A more informed decision among users and action-oriented policy frameworks, as well as research development, can reinforce the desired production and use of biochar in the region.
